Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Social Institutions

These flashcards cover key concepts related to race, ethnicity, gender, family, religion, and education as discussed in the lecture.

What is ethnicity?

A social group that shares a common cultural heritage, such as language, religion, or national origin.

What is race?

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical biological characteristics, like skin color.

What does the social construction of race refer to?

The process by which society creates and maintains racial categories, which change over time and across cultures.

What is melanin production related to in sociology?

It is used to explain how physical traits, such as skin color, are assigned social meaning.

What does the term 'Hispanic' signify in the U.S.?

An ethnic category used to describe people of Spanish-speaking origin, regardless of race.

What is racial essentialism?

The belief that racial groups possess inherent, unchanging, and 'natural' biological characteristics.

Define majority group.

The dominant group in society that holds the most power, wealth, and social status.

Define minority group.

A group that is singled out for unequal treatment and lacks social power.

What are stereotypes?

Overgeneralized and simplified beliefs about a particular group of people.

What is prejudice?

Preconceived opinions or attitudes (usually negative) about a group that are not based on reason or experience.

Define discrimination.

The actual unequal treatment or actions taken against individuals based on their group membership.

What justifications were used for American slavery?

Ideologies, often pseudo-scientific or religious, used to rationalize the enslavement of African people.

What were Jim Crow Laws?

Systemic state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the United States until 1965.

What are majority-minority states?

U.S. states where the combined 'minority' populations exceed the white 'majority' population.

What does NAFTA refer to in the context of immigration?

A trade agreement that influenced migration patterns by shifting economic conditions in Mexico and the U.S.

What is the racialization of the state?

The process by which government policies and institutions create and reinforce racial hierarchies.

What is institutional discrimination?

Unequal treatment that is built into the daily operations of social institutions like schools or banks.

What does Contact Theory suggest?

Interpersonal contact between different groups can reduce prejudice under specific conditions.

What is the implicit association test?

A psychological/sociological tool used to measure unconscious biases or hidden prejudices.

What is color-blind racism?

A modern ideology that defends the racial status quo by ignoring the existence of systemic racism.

What are masculinities?

The various social roles, behaviors, and meanings prescribed for men in a given society.

What is sexism?

The belief that one sex is innately superior to another, often leading to discrimination.

Define gender socialization.

The process of learning the social expectations and attitudes associated with one's sex.

What are gender roles?

The specific behaviors and traits that society considers 'appropriate' for men versus women.

What does the theory of doing gender state?

Gender is a routine, recurring accomplishment produced through social interaction.

What is gender stratification?

The unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women.

Define patriarchy.

A social system where men hold primary power and predominate in leadership and social roles.

What is the wage gap?

The statistical difference between the average earnings of men and women.

What is The Second Shift?

The unpaid domestic work (cooking, cleaning, childcare) performed primarily by women after their paid workday.

What does sexuality refer to?

A person's capacity for sexual feelings and their sexual orientation.

What is sexual identity?

How an individual perceives and labels their own romantic and sexual orientation.

Define heterosexism.

A system of attitudes and bias in favor of opposite-sex relationships and partnerships.

What is homophobia?

Dislike or prejudice against people who are attracted to the same sex.

What does feminism advocate for?

The equality of the sexes.

What is considered sex?

The biological classification of a person as male, female, or intersex based on anatomy.

Define gender in sociological terms.

The social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females.

What does intersex refer to?

Individuals born with biological sex characteristics that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female.

What is meant by the social construction of gender?

The theory that gender identities are created through cultural and social processes.

What is gender identity?

An individual's internal, deeply held sense of their own gender.

Define transgender.

People whose gender identity differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.

What is family in sociological terms?

A social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative groups to care for one another.

What is kinship?

A social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption.

What does cohabitation mean?

Two people living together in a sexual relationship without being legally married.

What is exogamy?

The social requirement to marry someone outside of one's own social group.

Define endogamy.

The social requirement to marry within one's own social group.

What has been the children's role in the family?

The shifting social expectations of children, moving from economic assets to emotional assets.

What is open-mate selection?

A system where individuals choose their own partners based on attraction rather than family arrangement.

What is the idealized model of family?

The culturally preferred version of family (often the nuclear family) that may not reflect reality.

What has been the trend regarding divorce over time in the US?

The historical trends and fluctuations in the legal dissolution of marriage.

What did Emile Durkheim say about the sacred and profane?

The distinction between things set apart as extraordinary (sacred) and ordinary elements of life (profane).

Define ritual in a social context.

Formal, ceremonial behaviors that reinforce religious or social beliefs.

What is collective conscience?

The shared set of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society.

What are the functions of religion?

The social purposes religion serves, such as providing meaning and social cohesion.

What was Marx's view on religion?

He criticized religion as the 'opium of the people,' used to maintain class inequality.

What does rationalization of society mean according to Weber?

The shift from traditional/religious motivations to efficiency and logic.

Who are the religiously unaffiliated?

Individuals who do not identify with a specific organized religion ('nones').

What is the secularization thesis?

The theory that as societies modernize, the influence of religion diminishes.

What is the difference between spiritual and religious?

Spiritual refers to personal beliefs while religious refers to organized institutional practices.

Define education in sociological terms.

The social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge and skills.

What is schooling?

Formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers.

What is occupational sorting?

The process by which social groups are funneled into specific types of jobs.

Define hidden curriculum.

The informal and unofficial lessons students learn in school, such as compliance and competition.

What is social reproduction theory?

The idea that schools reinforce and reproduce existing social class inequalities.

What is tracking in education?

Assigning students to different educational paths based on perceived ability.

What is residential segregation?

The physical separation of different social groups into different neighborhoods, impacting school quality.

Define status attainment.

The process by which individuals mobilize resources to achieve a certain position in the social hierarchy.

What is gender division of labor?

The delegation of different tasks to men and women in the workplace and home.

What is occupational prestige?

The social honor or respect society accords to different types of jobs.

What are unions?

Organizations of workers formed to protect and further their rights and interests.

Define emotional labor.

The requirement for workers to manage their emotions as part of their job performance.

What are contemporary trends in the workplace?

Modern shifts such as the gig economy, remote work, and increased automation.