Biochemical Pathways and Genetic Mechanisms

Vocabulary practice cards covering cellular metabolism, respiration pathways, genetic information flow, mutations, and bacterial genetics based on lecture notes.

Glycolysis

The first step of respiration occurring in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen.

Inputs of Glycolysis

Glucose and 2 ATP

Products of Glycolysis

$2$ Pyruvate, $2 \, NADH$, and a net of $2 \, ATP$

Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

Second step that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotes

Products of Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

produces $4 \, CO_2$, $6 \, NADH$, $2 \, FADH_2$, and $2 \, ATP$ per glucose

Products of the Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

Electron carriers

Electron Transport Chain

Third step that is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane

Requirements of the Electron Transport Chain

Oxygen as the final electron acceptor alongside $NADH$ and $FADH_2$

Products of the Electron Transport Chain

Water and the most $ATP$.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur within a cell.

Mutation

A change in the sequence of DNA.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The production of $ATP$ through the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Genome

All the genetic material of an organism.

ATP

The primary energy source used by the cell.

Codon

Three nucleotides on mRNA that code for a specific amino acid.

Coenzyme

Organic helper molecule that assists enzymes in their function.

Transcription

DNA → RNA

Translation

When mRNA → Proteins; occurs in the ribosomes.

Start Codon

The specific mRNA codon $AUG$, which codes for Methionine, signaling the beginning of translation.

Stop Codons

The specific mRNA codons $UAA$, $UAG$, and $UGA$ that signal the end of protein synthesis.

Silent Mutation

Amino acid stays the same

Missense Mutation

Causes a different amino acid

Nonsense Mutation

Creates a stop codon

Frameshift Mutation

Insertion or deletion of nucleotides that shifts the reading frame, usually being the most severe type.

Prokaryotic Transcription and Translation

Processes that occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm because there is no nucleus.

Eukaryotic Transcription and Translation

Processes that cannot occur simultaneously; transcription happens in the nucleus and translation happens in the cytoplasm.

Apoenzyme

The inactive protein portion of an enzyme.

Cofactor/Coenzyme

Non-protein helper molecule

Holoenzyme

The active form of an enzyme, consisting of an Apoenzyme plus a Cofactor or Coenzyme.

Transformation

A process where a bacterium takes up naked DNA from the surrounding environment.

Transduction

The transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage (virus).

Genetically Modified Bacteria

Bacteria used in medicine to produce substances like Insulin and Human growth hormone.

Genetically Modified Viruses

Used in gene therapy to deliver genes into cells

Aerobic Respiration

A type of respiration that requires oxygen as the final electron acceptor and produces the most $ATP$.

Anaerobic Respiration

A type of respiration that does not require oxygen, using a different final electron acceptor and producing less $ATP$

Fermentation

An anaerobic process with no electron transport chain that produces only $2 \, ATP$ from glycolysis and regenerates $NAD^+$.

Lac Operon (Lactose Present)

A state where the repressor is inactive, the genes are ON, and enzymes are produced to break down lactose.

Lac Operon (Lactose Absent)

A state where the repressor is active and the genes OFF

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules and release energy, such as cellular respiration.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that build molecules and require energy, such as protein synthesis.

Conjugation

The transfer of DNA (often plasmids) between bacteria through direct contact using a Sex pilus.

1st step in Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

2nd step of Cellular Respiration

The Krebs cycle, where Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, and ATP, NADH, FADH₂, and CO₂ are produced

3rd step of Cellular Respiration

The electron transport chain, where NADH, FADH₂ and oxygen are used, and ATP and water are produced.