AP GOV KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

political efficacy

* Political efficacy: belief that one's actions can affect political outcomes
* Factors affecting efficacy: socioeconomic status, education, political participation, trust in government
* Importance of efficacy: encourages participation, increases trust, promotes civic engagement
* Ways to increase efficacy: education, participation, addressing socioeconomic disparities
* Examples of low efficacy: voter apathy, political disengagement, lack of trust

prospective voting

* def: voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future
* ex: sanders dropping out of race to unite democratic party because it was predicted biden would do well

retrospective voting

* def: voting to decide whether the party of a candidate in power should be reelected based on the recent past
* ex: republicans are currently controlling congress in a bad economy, voters will most likely vote for democrats
* advantages: looks at shortcomings of previous leaders
* disadvantages: may discourage diversity of leaders

rational choice voting

* def: voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen’s individual interest
* ex: retiring citizen votes for a candidate that promises to protect social security
* advantage: voters vote for their values/ personal interest
* disadvantage: other things they don’t value may be overlooked

Keynesian economics

* the government should intervene to create the right level of demand
* multiplier effect increase in spending results in economic growth greater than the amount of growth of spending
* fiscal policy

supply-side economics

* laissez-faire
* taking less so that money stays with people
* spending will increase purchasing, jobs, and manufacturing
* fiscal policy

libertarian

general: focus on individual freedom and choice

social: disfavor any governmental intervention beyond the protection of private property and individual liberty

economic: little to no regulation of market place beyond protection of property rights

conservative

general: less government involvement in citizens’ lives

social: less government involvement to ensure social and economic equality

economic: fewer government regulations of the market

liberal

general: more government involvement in citizens’ lives

social: protect the autonomy and rights of individuals, but provide gov support to those who need it

economic: more government regulation of market

political socialization

how people develop and learn their attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions, and behaviors in regard to their political system and government their

agents: family, school, peers, media, group membership, generation

limited government

a political system in which there are restrictions placed on gov to protect individual rights and liberties

rule of law

the principle that gov is based on a body of law applied equally and fairly to every citizen

* no one is above the law including the government

free enterprise

the belief in the right to compete freely in a market economy by supply and demand with limited government involvement

equality of opportunity

the belief that each person should have the same opportunities to advance in society

individualism

the principle of valuing individual rights over those of the government, a strong emphasis on individual initiative and responsibility

affirmative action

a set of procedures designed to:

* eliminate unlawful discrimination among applicants
* remedy the results of such prior discrimination
* prevent such discrimination in the future

selective incorporation

the process by which the Supreme Court applies the provisions of the Bill of Rights to the states through the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment

prior restraint

censorship imposed, usually by a government or institution, on expression, that prohibits particular instances of expression

civil rights

* limits on the power of majorities to make decisions that would benefit some while harming others
* basic right to be free from unequal treatment based on certain protected characteristics
* actions by gov to protect the rights of minority groups
* treatment of an individual regarding certain rights

civil liberties

* personal freedoms protected from arbitrary governmental interference or deprivation by constitutional guarantee


* actual basic freedoms

redistricting

redrawing of electoral maps

gerrymandering

manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate

logrolling

process by which politicians trade support for one issue or piece of legislation in exchange for another politicians support

* ex: in votes

pork barrel legislation

appropriation of government spending for localized projects specific for their districts

mandatory spending

* payment required by law (mandated) for certain programs
* money earmarked for entitlement programs
* ex: social security, medicare, Medicaid

discretionary spending

* funding that congressional committees debate and decide how to divide up
* ex: about half devoted to military/defense; the other half goes to everything else

proportional representation

legislative seats are allocated to competing parties based on the total share of voters they receive in the election

* this can be a way to increase political parties
* ex: the house of representatives

equal representation

legislative seats are the same for each group

* ex: the Senate

implied powers

* powers assumed and interpreted to be given to each branch by the Constitution
* essential for government to function

enumerated powers

* expressed powers
* powers explicitly states and given to each branch in the Constitution

block grants

* federal money is given for a broadly defined reason
* no strings attached
* gives states more flexibility

categorical grants

* grants with particular guidelines or requirements
* strings are attached to receiving money
* limits on how to use funds (admin oversight)
* ex: raise drinking age to 21 in order to receive money for roads

project grants

type of categorical grant

* based on merit
* ex: pell grant

mandates

* require states to comply with or follow federal regulations
* sometimes money is given
* sometimes not (unfunded mandates)

federalism

an institutional arrangement that creates two relatively autonomous levels of government

* each can act directly on behalf of the people with the power given by the Constitution
* sharing powers between national and state governments

concurrent powers

powers held by both state and federal government

ex: levy and collect taxes, run court systems, define crime

exclusive powers

powers only given to federal government

ex: national currency, international/state commerce, immigration

impeachment

If a federal official commits a crime or otherwise acts improperly then…

* the House of Representatives may impeach (formally charge) that official.
* if the official subsequently is convicted in a Senate impeachment trial, he is removed from office.

checks and balances

a system that allows each branch of government to change or veto acts of another branch to prevent one branch from having to much power

separation of powers

* a country’s government divided into branches
* branches have separate and independent powers
* power of one branch is not in conflict with another

elite democracy

* emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society
* small, powerful, usually wealthy group of people make decisions
* keep general welfare of the country in mind b believe not everyone should be involved in the government

pluralist democracy

recognizes group-based activism by nongovernmental interest striving for impact in decision-making group-based

formal: part of a political party

informal: a piece of your identity

participatory democracy

* emphasizes broad participation in politics and civil society, people involved in all steps of process
* aka direct democracy

social contract

without government, humans live in a state of nature with absolute freedom

* humans give up absolute freedom in exchange for the protection of natural rights provided by the government

if government does not protect rights the people have a right to change the government

republicanism

citizens elect leaders to make and execute laws in the public interest

popular sovereignty

people are ultimate ruling authority

natural rights

rights everyone inherently has and are born with

electoral college

the process by which the United States elects the President, even though that term does not appear in the U.S. Constitution.

* In this process, the States (which includes the District of Columbia just for this process) elect the President and Vice President.

discretionary authority

* agency’s ability to decide whether or not to take certain courses of action when implementing existing laws
* make decisions on what actions to take

rule making authority

* agency’s ability to make rules that affect how programs operate, and to force states and corporations to obey these rules as if they were laws
* create regulations for government

bureaucracy

* vast hierarchical organization of executive branch employees that take care of the federal governments business
* interpret, administer, enforce the laws passed by Congress

bully pulpit

conspicuous position that provides an opportunity to speak out and be listened to

* term coined by United States President Theodore Roosevelt, who referred to his office as a "bully pulpit" ( a terrific platform from which to advocate an agenda)

signing statements

a written pronouncement issued by the President of the United States upon the signing of a bill into law

executive orders

a rule or order issued by the president to an executive branch of the government and having the force of law.

informal powers

the presidential power of persuasion

ex: informal communication, lobbying congressional members, public rallies, use of social media

formal powers

enumerated presidential power given by the constitution

ex: commander-in-chief, chief executive, executive orders, executive agreements, appointments

judicial restraint

follow a strict interpretation of the constitution, believes judges should follow precedent

judicial activism

loosely interpret and apply the Constitution based on ongoing changes and values

stare decisis

Latin for “let the decision stand”

precedent

rules and practices established in prior court decisions

* usually use previous decisions to make decisions about current cases

judicial review

the power of the courts to declare actions of the other two branches unconstitutional

politico

* balance of important principles
* act like a delegate ( when constituents care about something)
* act like a trustee ( when constituents don’t care about something)

delegate

believe they are merely to enact the wishes of constituents

* always follow constituents voting preferences

trustee

member of Congress who takes into account the views of their constituents and uses their own judgement to decide how to vote

* believes they are trusted to make good decisions

advice and consent

the role of the Senate to confirm presidential nominations for executive and judicial posts and international treaties.

filibuster

a political procedure in which one or more members of a legislative body prolong debate on proposed legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent decision (senate)

cloture

a process in parliamentary procedure aimed at bringing debate to a quick end (senate)

horse race journalism

political journalism of elections that resembles coverage of horse races because of the focus on polling data and public perception instead of candidate policy

* almost exclusive reporting on candidate differences rather than similarities

super PACs

a type of independent political action committee which may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals but is not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties or candidates.

PACs

a group that collects funds from donors and distributes them to support their issues (limited)

caucus

a meeting or grouping of supporters or members of a specific political party or movement

closed primaries

only persons who are registered members of a political party may vote the ballot of that political party

open primaries

a primary election that does not require voters to be affiliated with a political party in order to vote for partisan candidates

incumbency advantage

an incumbent has a political advantage over challengers at elections

* they have easier access to campaign finance and government resources that can be indirectly used to boost a campaign

free riders

some individuals can receive benefits without helping to bear the costs

lobbying

two types: inside and outside

* inside lobbying: takes the interest group’s message directly to a government official like a lawmaker ( aka direct lobbying)
* outside lobbying: attempting to get message out to the public (aka indirect lobbying)

third party

alternatives to the Republican and Democratic parties

* aka minor parties

winner takes all system

the winner of the election then becomes the representative of the whole electoral district and serves with representatives of other electoral districts

ex: democratic candidate gets most votes in new york, then all electoral college votes go to democrat

proportional system

a type of electoral system under which subgroups of an electorate are reflected proportionately in the elected body

party realignment

shifting of party allegiances within the electorate ( when the party feels needs are no longer being met)

* democrats moved to include African Americans and minorities

critical elections

and election that represents sudden, clear, and long term shift in voter allegiances

candidate-centered campaigns

election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence

political party platform

* positions on critical issues
* these are adopted at each party’s nominating convention

general election

a political voting election where generally all or most members of a given political body are chosen

midterm election

a type of election where the people can elect their representatives and other subnational officeholders in the middle of the term of the executive

interest groups

a group of people that seeks to influence public policy on the basis of a particular interest or concern

political party

a group of people with broad common interests who organize to win elections, control government, and thereby influence government policies

linkage institution

structure within society that links and connects individuals to their government

ex: interest groups, political parties, the media

exit polls

* survey performed on election day that is taken as voters exit their voting location
* media outlets often rely on exit polls to determine election results, even before the ballots have been counted

entrance polls

* survey performed on election day that is taken as voters enter their voting location

tracking polls

* continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidates daily rise or fall in support

opinion polls

a poll taken by sampling a small section of the public in an effort to predict election results or to estimate public attitudes on issues

issue networks

an alliance of various interest groups, bureaucratic agencies, private businesses, and individuals who unite in order to promote a common cause

iron triangle

comprises the policy-making relationship among the congressional committees, the bureaucracy, and interest groups