Nutrition and Food Processing in Animals and Plants

Filter Feeding

Example:
Krill, Baleen whales, Sponges

What kind of Feeding Mechanism do they use?

Substrate Feeding

Example:
Earthworms, Caterpillars, Termites

What kind of Feeding Mechanism do they use?

Fluid Feeding

Example:
Mosquitoes (blood), Hummingbirds (nectar), Butterflies (nectar)s

What kind of Feeding Mechanism do they use?

Bulk Feeding

Example:
Humans, Lions, Eagles, Snakes

What kind of Feeding Mechanism do they use?

Filter Feeding

Mechanisms/Specialized Structures:
hair-like structures, mucus, Baleen plates

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Substrate Feeding

Mechanisms/Specialized Structures:
burrowing through soil or decaying matter, consuming leaves directly

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Fluid Feeding

Mechanisms/Specialized Structures:
beaks, proboscises for nectar; piercing and sucking mouthparts for blood or sap

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Bulk Feeding

Mechanisms/Specialized Structures:
active hunting or foraging, stalking, pouncing, grazing, browsing

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Filter Feeding

Role in Ecosystem:
water purification, supports marine food web

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Substrate Feeding

Role in Ecosystem:
decomposition, nutrient cycling

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Fluid Feeding

Role in Ecosystem:
pollination, disease transmission

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Bulk Feeding

Role in Ecosystem:
maintaining predator-prey dynamics, nutrient distribution

For what kind of Feeding Mechanism is this?

Ostia

Water enters the sponge’s body through small pores called

choanocytes (collar cells)

The water is driven by the beating of specialized cells called which has whip-like flagella.

phagocytosis (cell eating)

The trapped food is engulfed by the choanocytes through

amoebocytes (or archaeocytes).

The food particles are transferred to specialized cells called

osculum

the filtered water (containing waste) exits the sponge through a large opening called the

Hydra

Extends its tentacles and waits for prey to touch them. Once the cnidocytes fire, the tentacles bring the prey to the mouth for digestion.

Jellyfish

Use pulsating movements to bring prey into contact with their tentacles, followed by nematocyst firing and ingestion.

Sea anemones

Use their tentacles to catch small fish or plankton and pull them into the mouth.

nematodes

The most primitive type of gut or digestive tract is found in

Caenorhabditis elegans

A free-living nematode that feeds on bacteria.

Root-knot nematodes

Use their stylets to pierce plant roots and extract nutrients.

Salivary amylase, oral cavity

Initiates carb breakdown

Lingual lipase, oral cavity

Starts fat digestion

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), stomach

Secreted by parietal cells

Pepsinogen, stomach

Secreted by chief cells, transformed by HCl into its active form

Pepsin, stomach

Active form of pepsinogen

Intrinsic factor (a protein), stomach

Secreted by parietal cells, protects vitamin B12 from digestion

Trypsin, small intestine, duodenum (produced by the pancreas)

Breaks down proteins into amino acids

Chymotrypsinogen (produced by the pancreas)

Breaks down proteins into their aromatic amino acids

Pancreatic lipase (produced by the pancreas)

Breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

Nucleases (produced by the pancreas)

Breaks down nucleic acids into nucleotides

Pancreatic amylase (produced by the pancreas)

Breaks down starch, glycogen, and most carbs except cellulose into monosaccharides

Sucrase

“Brush border” enzymes (secreted and found along the entire lining of the small intestine) break down disaccharides

Lactase

“Brush border” enzymes (secreted and found along the entire lining of the small intestine) break down disaccharides

Maltase

“Brush border” enzymes (secreted and found along the entire lining of the small intestine) break down disaccharides

villi

Plica circularis folds are covered in projections called

"brush border"

Absorptive cells make enzymes & store them in their microvilli, also known as the

Brush border enzyme

are the last step in the digestion of carbs, lipids & proteins. After this, the products can be absorbed

Liver

Produces bile, a fluid that contains cholesterol, bile acids, and bilirubin which aid in lipid digestion
- Stored in the gall bladder

Liver

Coverts highly toxic ammonia (accumulates during protein breakdown) into urea, a more tolerable form

Liver

Synthesizes proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen (form blood clots)

Liver

Stores vitamins, iron, and glucose

Liver

Neutralizes and eliminates toxic substances from the blood

Liver

Blood circulates through the liver by the portal vein and the hepatic vein

Liver

Consists of four lobes: right, left, quadrate, and caudate

Liver

Consists of only 4 major cells: hepatocytes (main functional cells of the liver), hepatic stellate cells, Kupffer cells, and sinusoidal endothelial cells

Gallbladder

The pathway of bile or the biliary tree

Pancreas

Both an endocrine and an exocrine gland

endocrine gland

secretes directly into the blood

exocrine gland

releases secretions through ducts that lead to the outside of the body or into a body cavity

islets of Langerhans

are responsible for the secretion of insulin (lowers blood sugar/glucose levels) and glucagon (raises sugar/glucose levels), which is an endocrine function

Chlorosis

(a condition in which leaves produce insufficient chlorophyll). Deficient of chlorophyll pigment is called

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Nitrogen (N)

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Phosphorus (P)

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Potassium (K)

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Calcium (Ca)

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Magnesium (Mg)

Macronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Sulfur (S)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Iron (Fe)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Manganese (Mn)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Zinc (Zn)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Copper (Cu)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Boron (B)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Molybdenum (Mo)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Chlorine (Cl)

Micronutrient

What kind of nutrient is Nickel (Ni)

Nitrogen (N)

Function:
- Component of proteins, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.
- Promotes leaf and stem growth.

Phosphorus (P)

Function:
- Essential for energy transfer (ATP).
- Important for root development, flowering, and fruiting.

Potassium (K)

Function:
- Regulates water balance (stomatal function).
- Activates enzymes. - Increases disease resistance.

Calcium (Ca)

Function:
- Component of cell walls.
- Involved in cell division and elongation.
- Influences membrane permeability

Magnesium (Mg)

Function:
- Central atom in chlorophyll.
- Activates enzymes.

Sulfur (S)

Function:
- Component of proteins and enzymes.
- Involved in chlorophyll synthesis.

Iron (Fe)

Function:
- Essential for chlorophyll synthesis.
- Involved in electron transport.

Manganese (Mn)

Function:
- Activates enzymes.
- Involved in photosynthesis.

Zinc (Zn)

Function:
- Activates enzymes.
- Important for growth regulation.

Copper (Cu)

Function:
- Involved in enzyme activity.
- Important for electron transport

Boron (B)

Function:
- Important for cell wall synthesis.
- Involved in flowering and fruiting.

Molybdenum (Mo)

Function:
- Essential for nitrogen fixation.
- Involved in nitrate reduction.

Chlorine (Cl)

Function:
- Involved in stomatal function.
- Important for photosynthesis.

Nickel (Ni)

Function:
- Essential for nitrogen metabolism.
- Required for urease enzyme activity

Nitrogen (N)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Yellowing of older leaves (chlorosis).
- Stunted growth. - Pale green color

Phosphorus (P)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Stunted growth.
- Purple or reddish discoloration of leaves and stems.
- Poor root development.

Potassium (K)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Yellowing or browning of leaf margins (marginal chlorosis or necrosis).
- Weak stems.
- Poor fruit development.

Calcium (Ca)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Young leaves distorted or hooked.
- Blossom-end rot in fruits.
- Poor root growth.

Magnesium (Mg)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Interveinal chlorosis (yellowing between veins) in older leaves.
- Leaf curling.

Sulfur (S)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- General yellowing of younger leaves.
- Stunted growth.

Iron (Fe)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Interveinal chlorosis in younger leaves.
- Veins remain green.

Manganese (Mn)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Interveinal chlorosis with green veins.
- Gray spots on leaves.

Zinc (Zn)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Small leaves (little leaf).
- Shortened internodes.
- Chlorosis.

Copper (Cu)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Wilting of young leaves.
- Dieback of shoots.

Boron (B)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Dieback of terminal buds.
- Cracked stems.
- Poor fruit development.

Molybdenum (Mo)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- General yellowing.
- "Whiptail" in some plants (e.g., cauliflower).

Chlorine (Cl)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Wilting.
- Bronzing of leaves.
- Stunted root growth.

Nickel (Ni)

Deficiency Symptoms:
- Necrosis of leaf tips.
- Inhibition of iron absorption.

The Light-Dependent Reactions

The first phase of photosynthesis, occurs in the thylakoid membrane

The Light-Dependent Reactions

Water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen

The Light-Dependent Reactions

There are two rxn centers: photosystem (or PS) II and PS I

The Light-Dependent Reactions

When chlorophyll absorbs a photon (the particle of light energy), one of the electrons in chlorophyll is boosted to a higher energy level where it becomes reactive or unstable