human behavior final

study

Trivers-Willard Hypothesis

The theory the parents will favor sons when they are in good condition or resources are plentiful, and favor daughters when they are in poor condition or resources are scarce. This is because of their respective reproductive variance.

Reproductive Variance/Skew

The difference in reproductive success within a sex; females generally have lower variance because they are likely to reproduce regardless of the environment

Sex-Biased Investment

The practice of favoring one sex of offspring over the other, often influenced by the parents social rank or access to resources (e.g. high ranking Rwandan women favoring sons)

Cinderella Effect

The statistical trend where stepparents are significantly more likely to abuse or neglect children than biological parents

Still Face Experiment

A study where mothers “dead pan” their faces to observe how infants use tools like screeching or smiling to regain social interaction

Prosociality

A subset of behaviors that are positive, helpful, or intended to promote friendships and good relationships

Theory of Mind

The ability to attribute mental states to others or the understanding that others have different knowledge than oneself

Mirror Self Recognition Test

A test used to indicate self awareness or an increased distinction between self and others

Ontogeny

The entire sequence of developmental stages/events in an individual organisms life

R Strategy

A reproductive strategy characterized by unpredictable environments, large broods, smalls parental investment, high offspring mortality, and rapid maturation

K Strategy

A life history strategy (which humans largely follow) characterized by stable environments, small broods, large parental investment, low mortality, and slow development

Play

Rewarding, voluntary, and repetitive behavior that resembles serious behavior but is exaggerated and lacks an immediate survival purpose

Solitary Play

Play engaged in by oneself

Social Play

Play involving two or more individuals, used to learn social skills and test social bonds

Parallel Play

A developmental stage where children perform the same activity near each other but do not yet interact or involve one another

The play deficit

A shift in Western society where children spend less time exploring and playing freely, which the sources link to increased rates of narcissism

Altruism

behavior that decreases an individuals own survival or reproductive chances while improving those of another

Inclusive fitness

The sum of direct fitness (own reproduction) and indirect fitness (reproduction by relatives)

Hamiltons Rule

The principle (rB>C) that altruistic behaviors are favored if the benefit (B) to the recipient, adjusted for the degree of the relatedness(r), outweighs the cost(C) to the altruist

Kin selection

An evolutionary strategy where individuals preferentially help relatives (e.g. food sharing or political alliances)

Phenotypic matching

Determining relatedness by assessing characteristics like odor or visual cues

Prisoner’s Dilemma

A game theory model where individuals choose to cooperate (stay silent) or defect (betray) based on their own self-interest

Insured Transactions

Interactions defined by repeated encounters and the recognition of past moves, which help cultivate cooperation

Shadow of the Future

The incentive to cooperate based on the expectation of an extended future of interactions with another

Ultimatum Game

An economic game where Player 1 offers a split of money and Player 2 can refuse it, causing both to receive nothing

Dictator Game

An economic game where Player 1 offers a split of money and Player 2 must accept; it is used to measure pure fair mindedness

Market Integration

How often members of a society participate in transactions with non-kin

Status Hierarchies

Social structures that establishes “priority of access” to resources and establish parameters for individual behavior

SES gradient in health

The correlation where lower socioeconomic status predicts increased risks of various diseases and higher mortality rates

Physical Stressor

A direct challenge to an organisms internal balance, such as calorie deficiency or infection

Psychological Stressor

The anticipation or remembrance of a challenge to homeostasis

PTSD

A condition resulting from exposure to extreme trauma

What’s the purpose of status hierarchies?

They create a structure and pattern for interactions. Basically, there isn’t a fight everytime a female is available or resources are found, there’s a ladder of established priority.

What is the cause of the SES gradient?

Stress (psychological and physical)

What’s the difference in SES gradient causes in first world vs third world countries

People living within first world countries typically experience psychological stressors while those living in third world countries are more likely to experience physical stressors

Behaviorial cues

Observable behaviors between individuals that allow inferences to be made about social relationships, this includes time together, mating history, time with known individuals, etc.

Warfare

Conflict involving more than 2 individuals of separate groups fighting

How can warfare increase reproductive success?

Many times in war, women are seen as “spoils” of the war, thus the winners get to reproduce. Warriors of war are also more likely to have more wives/reproduce more in general

3 ways to rally an army

Promoting kinship like bonds, individuals can gain personal rewards through group action, fear of punishment

Punishment

Any event which decreases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur

Rational copying

Copying only the steps/behaviors essential for reaching the end goal

Co-Evolution

Two species having close interactions with one another, ultimately affecting each other’s evolution

Behavioral Economics

A field of study examining the effects of psychological, social, cognitive, and emotional factors on individual economic decisions

Name at least ¾ flaws in human decision making

1.People strongly prefer avoiding losses over acquiring gains

2.People place a higher value on a good once they’ve owned it

3.People place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves

4.People respond more to how things ends rather than considering the event as a whole

Group think

Psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational decision making outcome

Threshold of collective behavior

The number of people who have to do something before a given individual joins in

Tragedy of commons

When individuals, acting in their own interest, deplete a shared resource, even thought it is in nobody’s interest for that to happen

Dual Process Theory

Humans think in 2 different ways “modes”. One is fast and more likely to result in cooperative action while the second is slow and deliberate, more likely to provide a more logical or conservative action in self interest

Macbeth Effect

Feelings of moral guilt can result in the literal desire for cleanliness, possibly because the individual feels “dirty”.

Maternal Rank Inheritance

Offspring will attain a social rank adjacent to their mother in the groups dominance heirarchy

Gini Coefficient

Statistical measure used to represent income distribution. Measures economic inequality

Material wealth

Property such as land, livestock, and/or household goods

Embodied Wealth

Knowledge and skills(along with training required for their acquisition)

Network/Social/Relational Wealth

Number of network links in various domains, such as exchange and alliance partners; relates to social contracts with others in the society

Gene-Culture Co-Evolution

An evolutionary feedback loop where traditions,culture,and customs all put selective pressure on human gene evolution, which then influences those same traditions,culture, and customs.

How do we frame the Oedipus Theory in these lectures?

If a parent and their child are both of reproductive age, they can actually compete with each other in sexual relationships.

How does warfare increase reproductive success?

Warriors in battle are likely to have a higher reproductive success rate, while the winners of war typically gets the “spoils” which are conquered women.

Cumulative Cultural Transmission

culture that accumulates improvements over time instead of restarting every generation.

Fission-Fusion Society

Social groups with deep social bonds however, fluidly split into smaller subgroups and reunite, with changing membership, based on environmental or social conditions

Lottery Hypothesis

Sexual reproduction offers a solution to constantly changing selective pressures and environmental changes. Explains why sexual reproduction is found prominently throughout nature.

Dowry

Payment which a woman's family makes to the groom or groom's family

Arranged Marriage

A marriage which has been prearranged, typically by parents. Important examples include Taiwanese Minor Marriages.

Intrasexual Selection

Same sex competes within itself. Drives traits like size, aggression, and weaponry (Tusks, horns, etc.)

Grandmother Hypothesis

Females provide tremendous resources to society primarily through caregiving, often far past their fertile window/peak. This is why human females live past menopause as compared to other primates which typically die past fertility.

Alloparenting

Parental care provided by anybody other than the mother. Can be as simple as another group member comforting/feeding another members child.

Intersexual Selection

One sex choose their preferred sexual partner. Drives flamboyant/excessive features (Peacock's tail, Bird mating dances, Etc.)

Handicap Principle

Only genuinely high quality individuals can afford to carry the burden of extravagant signals (peacock's tail), making it impossible for low quality individuals to fake.

How do the mate preferences of stressed vs. unstressed male differ?

Unstressed males prefer similar looking mates, while stressed males "seem to prefer dissimilar mates

DNA Repair Hypothesis

Sexual reproduction allows for damaged/mutated DNA to be repaired during meiosis. Explains why sexual reproduction is found prominently throughout nature

Pair Bonded Species

Species where parents form incredibly strong bonds, lasting much longer than the action of just mating, extending to the care of the child

Polygyny

Mating system involving more than 1 female in a sexual relationship

Red Queen Hypothesis

Sexual reproduction generates genetic diversity in order to keep up with pathogens and parasites. Explains why sexual reproduction is found prominently throughout nature.

Socioecological Hypothesis

Predicts the relationship between social organization and food distribution. Essentially, Females follow food while Males follow the Females

Bateman's Principle

Suggests that reproductive variability is higher among males in most species. "Females are limited by the # of eggs produced, Males are limited by the # of Females seduced."

Social Brain Hypothesis

Species who tend to live in complex social societies have higher cognitive abilities due to selective pressures which prefer it. Can explain why primates, and specifically humans, have such large brains when compared to other species.

Dunbar's Number

Limit of stable social relationships cognitively capable, estimated at 150

Cooperative Breeding

Cohesive social group with 2 subsets. One driving the reproduction with the other taking care of children.

Polygynandry

Mating system involving multiple Males and Females in a sexual relationship

Direct Care

Direct physical acts done to support or care for a child. Includes actively feeding, holding, or comforting.

Polyandry

Mating system involving more than 1 male in a sexual relationship

Indirect Care

Acts done to support a child which isn't direct physical contact. This includes working a job for an income, defending territory, building a nest/home.

Bridewealth

Payment which a man or his family makes to the bride or the bride's family in return for marriage.

Operational Sex Ratio

Ratio of sexually active males to sexually receiving females. Limiting factors could be high pregnancy rate, caring for offspring, or just old age.

Sex Ratio

Proportion of males to females in a population

Weaning Conflict

The idea that a mother wants to stop breast feeding soon while the child wants to prolong the breast feeding as long as possible. It stems from the idea that a mother wants to allocate those resources elsewhere while for the child their survival rate increases the longer they breast feed.

Westermarck Effect

Familiarity during early childhood suppresses sexual attraction. If you grow up with someone you are unlikely to find them sexually attractive.

Glucocorticoids

Chemical used the measure stress levels in individuals

Imbalance of Power Hypothesis

Groups are much more likely to attack if they have a significant numerical advantage compared to another group

Whats the relationship between cultural transmission and population size?

Generally, as population size increases, there is more effective cultural transmission seen throughout generations.

Maladaptive Behavior

A trait evolved in one environment and is presumed to be adapted to that context, but is poorly suited when displayed in another context. E.g. overeating

Thrifty Gene Hypothesis

Attempts to explain the prevalence of obesity in modern human society through an evolutionary framework. Our ancestors benefitted from eating as much as possible because their supply of food was much more inconsistent; saving calories whenever possible was always beneficial because it was common to go much longer without eating anything.

Naturalistic fallacy

Assuming that because something is natural it is therefore good, right, or morally justified

Moralistic Fallacy

Assuming that because something is morally good, it must therefore be true in nature or the ideal way the world should work.

Despotic Society

Society with a strong dominance hierarchy where power is high concentrated in one dominant individual (or a few at the top)

Egalitarian Society

A society where power is more evenly distributed and individuals have relatively equal access to resources and influence

Emotional Contagion

The idea that you may subconsciously replicate emotions you’re exposed to in your environment. Yawning, anxiety, laughter in a large room are all examples of this.

Empathetic perspective taking

The ability to understand another person’s emotional state by imagining their perspective