AP psychology exam flashcards

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

executive functioning

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

meta - analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

case studies

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals

correlations

the measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

representative sample

A representative sample is a smaller group selected from a larger population that mirrors the characteristics (like age, gender, location) of the whole group

convenience sample

choosing individuals who are easiest to reach

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

Quantitative Research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

qualitative research

research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced

peer review

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

mean

average - obtained by adding all numbers and dividing by however many numbers there are

median

the middle score - half the scores above and half below

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

positive skew

high outlier

negative skew

low outlier

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

effect sizes

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

cofounding variables (participant and situation relevant)

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

social desirability bias

bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

Third variable problem (in correlation)

when a third variable causes a correlation between two other variables, making it seem like they have a causal relationship when they don't

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

double-blind procedure

experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

FRONTAL LOBE

planning, making judgments, speaking, and body movements contains motor cortex PARIETAL LOBE

Sensation

sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus energies from environment

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

just - noticeable difference

the smallest amount of change in a stimulus that a person can detect at least half of the time

sensory adaption

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

weber´s law

the principle that two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum % (rather than a constant amount)

sensory interaction

combining sensory system informs, influences and enhances an experience

synesthsia

input of one sensory system/pathway leads to involuntary experience of a 2nd or 3rd

retina

light - sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin in the processing visual center

blind spot

the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye causing a ¨blind spot¨because no cell receptors are there

lens

transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help refocus images on the retina

accomodation

the process where the eye´s lense changes shape to focus images of near or for objects for the retina

nearsightedness

a common refractive error where distant objects appear blurry while close objects remain clear

farsightedness

a common refractive error where distant objects appear blurry while close objects remain clear

cones

retinal receptors that function in daylight also give color and make detailed images

rods

detect black and white. necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don´t respond

wavelength

the distance from peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next wavelengths

trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina that contains 3 colors containing 3 different types of color receptors

opponent - process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

ganglion cells

neurons in the retina that transmit visual information from the eye to the brain via the optic nerve

color vision deficiency

is a condition where a person has difficulty distinguishing certain colors.

prosopagnosia

inability to recognize the faces of familiar people

blind sight

a condition where someone can respond to a visual stimuli without consciously experiencing it

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

phantom limb sensation

patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there

amplitudes

the height and depth of wave, refers to the intensity of energy transmission

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

volley theory

a theory that proposes that our brain decodes pitch by noticing the frequency at which groups of hair cells on the basilar membrane are firing

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

sound localization theory

ability to locate the location of a sound - because we have 2 ears

conduction deafness

caused my damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea - outer and middle ear is damaged

sensorineural deafness

deafness that results from damage to the auditory nerve - inner ear is damaged

vestibular sense (semicircular canals)

three fluid-filled canals in the inner ear responsible for our sense of balance

kinesthesis

the sense of movement and body position

Offraction

sense of smell

Pheremones

chemical signals which are found in natural body scents in humans and other species

what are the 6 taste sensations?

sweet, sour, salty, bitter, unami, and olegustus

taste receptors

chemical receptors on the tongue that decode molecules of food or drink to identify them

Supertasters

people with heightened sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations

bottom-up processing

information processed that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain´s integration of sensory information

top - down processing

a process whereby our existing knowledge of objects influences how we perceive them

figure - ground

We organize pictures based on who the figure (ie. person, thing of interest) is and the ground (ie. the background)

proximity

We group objects together based on how close they are.

similarity

This is an example based on similarly of color. We perceive things as two categories here…one is white circles, the other as black circles.

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party phenomenon

focus of attention on selected aspects of the environment and block out the rest

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness