3.2-learning and memory

Learning

Lasting acquisiton of knowledge or behaviour as a result of experience over time

Classical conditioning

Learning process that occurs when 2 unrelated stimuli are repeatedly paired together to produce a conditioned response over time

-When neutral (had no effect) stimulus is paired with stimulus that nautrally elicits a response, over time the ns elicits the natural response

Unconditioned stimulus

Normally produces involuntary reaction/reflex

Example-food

Unconditioned response

-Natural, unlearned reaction

Eg-Salivation when food is presented

Neutral stimulus

Doesn’t naturally elicit any specific reaction

Eg-Bell

COnditioned stimulus

-Neutral stimulus (bell) that thru repeated asscoiations with UCS, elciits a condtioned reaction

Eg-Bell after being paired with food

Conditioned response

Reflex response to previously NS after associative learning has occured

Eg-Salivation to bell alone

Phases of classical conditoning (Before conditioning)

-NS produces no relevant response (bell=no reaction)

-UCS elcitis an unleanred, naturally occuring rautomatic response (UCR)

-Food=Salivation

During conditoning

Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with unconditoned stimulus to produce the UCR (acquistion)

NS+UCS-UCR

Bell (NS) + Food (UCS)-Salivation (UCR)

after conditioning

Neutral stimulus becomes a conditoned stimulus which produces a now CR

-NS becomes the CS

-The UCR (salivaiton) becomes the CR

Operant conditoning

Likeligood of a voluntary bejaviour is determined by its consequneces

-Active learner because they voluntarily and consciously choose responses/behaviour.

Phases of operant conditoning (Antecedent)

What happens to trigger the situation

Phases of Operant conditioning (Behaviour)

The observable action performed by the indiviudal

Eg-Dog sits

Phases of Operant conditoning (Consequence)

Outcome of behaviour, determines likelihood that it will occur again

Eg-Owner gives dog a treat which increases likelhiood the dog will sit (behaviour) in response to the command (antecedent) in the future

Reinforceent

Any stimulus that strengthends likelhiood of a response (behaviour) occuring in the futrue

Positive reinforcement

Adding a pleasent stimulus after behaviour

Example-Praise, rewards, good grades

EG-Student studies-receives praise-receives more

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasent stimulus after behaviour.

Behaviour increases because soething unpleasent is removed

Example-Seatbelt alarm stops when seatbelt is fastened

Punishment

Decreases lileihood of behaviour occuring again

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasent stimulus after behaviour

Eg-Student talks-teacher gives detention

Negative punsihemnt

Removing pleasent stimulus

Eg-Phone taken away for breaking rules

Social learning theory: Observational learnign

-Learning when we watch another perfrom a task and obsevre the consequences of their actions

Five processes of Observational Learning (attention)

Leaner must be actively aware and watching

-Must pay attention to models behaviour to recognise key features involved

Five proccesses of Observational learning (retention)

Learner must create mental representation to remember what they saw

Five proccesses of Observational learning (Reproduction)

Learner must be physicallyl and mentally capable of replicating what they observed

Five proccesses of Observational learning (Motivation

Leaner must have desire and want or perceive value

Five proccesses of Observational learning (Reinforcement)

Rewards or punishment for model which will either increase or decrease likelihood that the person watching will reproduce behaviour

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory

states that memory is a system with 3 seperate types of storage that work together to help us encode, store and retrieve info.

Infromation processing model

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Three memory stores (Sensory memory)

Received by senses, if info is attended to then it is transferred to stm

Capacity-Unlimited

Function-Receives sensory info from he environment

Duration-0.3-4 seconds

Types of sensory memory

Iconic memory (visual)-1/4 of a second duration

Echoic memory (auditory)-2-4 seconds

Short term memory (STM)

Receives info from sensory memory and transfer it to and from LTM.

Capacity-5-9 items

Duration-12-30 seconds

-Info is transfered to LTM through rehearsal

Long term Memory (LTM)

Has specific meaning and purpose for the indiivudal

Storage funciton-Semantic (personal meaning)

Capacity-Unlimted

Duration-Potentially lifetime

Method of loci

Memory technique involving visualsing items in famialr locations.

Steps:

1-Imagine famialr place

2-Associate items with locations

3-Mentally walk through location to recall

Acqusition

Leanring through repeated assocaiton of NS with UCS to produce a CR. NS must be presented immediately before UCS for this to work

Compare Classical and operant

-Both are behaviourtist

-Both 3 phase processes of elarning

-Operant involves learning voluntary behaviour, classical involves learnign involuntayr behaviour

-Active learners in operant, passive during classical

Encoding

COnverting info into a useable form

Storage

Retaining info for a period of time

Retrieval

Accessing info that has been previsouily stored

Chunking

Increases capcity of STM-meaningful grouping

Serial psoiton effect

Finding that free recall is better for items at end and beginning of the list

Maintenace rehearsal (STM)

Increases duration of STM, rote learning via repition

ADV and DISADV of Multi-Store model of Memory

-Outlines that each memory store has a different duration and capacity

-Explains how info is transferred to LTM from sensory memory and STM and why forgetting occurs

-Oversimplifed

-SIgnores factors such as motivaiton and strategy

Country is and how learning occurs

Sentient ecology, where its a combined living system that has conscious awareness, made up of living and non living entities that holds and shared knowledge.

-Learning occurs by learning how to listen to what these different entities are telling you.

Kinship (learning embedded in relationships)

Who can share which info with who.

Kinship patterns define relationships between people and places, allowing access to shared knowledge.

-Refers to a system of social organisation in which everyone is related to each other in defined ways.

Multimodal systems of knowledge

Learning is multimodal, multiple modalities imply that a number of different senses and thinking processes are being employed.

-dance, song, story from elders

-The greater variety of modes, the more effective the learning and remembering.

Aboriginal and Torres strait islanders approach to learning System based learning

All aspects of learning are interconnected. Uses a variety of different sesnes and thinking strategies.

Embedded in relationships-All people in community are interconnected, learning is passed down from one generation to the next via kinship structures

-Patterned on country…

procedrual memory

Knowing how

-Skills, actions, abilities, movements

Declerative memory-Semantic and episodic

Knowing that

-Explicit

Semantic memory

-Memory of facts, world or general knowledge

-Less personal

-I KNOW that the capital of australia is canberra

Episodic memory

Personal experiences and events

Explict memory

Type of long term memory that is formed and retrieved intentionally and with concisous effort

Implicit memory (procedural memory)

Type of long term memory that is formed and retrieved without conscious effort

LTM subdivisions

Explcit-Semantic, episodic

Implict-procedural, classically conditoned memory

Atkinson SHiffrin Model

Incoming sensory info-Attention-STM-Encode-LTM (storage)-Retrieval-Stm

Hippocampus

-WHere new memories are formed-consolidation of STM into LTM

-Encoding of explicit memories only

-Retrieval of explict memories

-Responsible for spatial awareness

Amygdala

Encodes, retrieval of the emotional components of memories.

Neocortex (lobes of the brain)

-Storage and retrieval of Semantic and Episodic LTMs

Cerebellum

Encoding, retrieval, storage of implict procedural and classicialy condtoned memories.

-People with dmamaged hippocmapus cans till create implict memories because they have thier cerebellum.

Basal ganglia

Encoding of procedural long term implcit memories that involve habits and routines.

Encoding and retreiving long term implcit memories involving motor skills or habit formation.

-Involved with classicaly conditioned reflex responses

Alzheimers disease

An irreversible, progressive and fatal neurodegenerative that damages the brain and degenerates brain cells.

Causes severe cognitive and behavioural decline.

-damages neurons in hippocampus first.

-Progresses to the neocortex then hindbrain.

-Reduced ability to retrieve autobiographical events and impaired ability to construct possible imagined futures

Aphantasia

-Inability ti visuaklise mental imnagery,.

-Difficult rembering autobiographical memories

-DIfficulty constructing imagined futures

-Due to underactve primary visual cortex or weakned neural pathway between visual cortex and frontal lobe.

-Semantic can remain intact but visual component of these memories may be lacking.

Mnemonic devices

Techniques to help us encode info in a way that makes it more memorable. Create meanignful links between knowledge you want to learna nd things that are naturally memorable

Mnemonics in written cultures (acronym)

First letters of items form a prounancable world.

EG-ACE

Mnemonics in written cultures (acrositcs)

Use different words to help rmemebr a seqeunce. First letter of each word to create memorable phrases.

Every Good Boy Deserves Fruit

Menomics in written cultures (loci)

Converts items into mental images and associates withspecific locations

-Used for speeches and public addresses

elaborative rehearsal

semantic processing, creates personal meaning that links new info with old info to consolidate STM into LTM

Serial positon effect

Rembering info in the order its presented

-Primacy effect-recall first items (more rehearsal time to be processed into LTM)

Recency effect-recall of last items (remain in STM-immediate recall)

Implict memory (classically conditoned memory)

involve an involuntary response to stimulus after repeated pairings.

-Memories are retreived involuntarily and can be reflexive

Autobiographical memories

Interaction between semantic and episodic memories. Type of explicit memory. Retrieve past events and imagine possible futures.

EPisodic (snesory details, thoughts and emotions, details that relate to times and places

Semantic (general event knowledge, personal facts without context

Imagined futures

actively consutrcing events that haven’t occured.

-Based on past events and knowledge

EPisodic memroy provides episodic components (people, obejcts, lcoatons)

Semaitc provides the context.

Mental time travel is when we are able to retieve memories from our personal past and enviosion oissiuble futures.

Mnemonics devices strengths and weaknesses

-SUpeiror recall of items encoded

-Can be time consuming where they require more consious effort.

Neurodengenerative disease

Progressive decline in the strucuure, acitivitiy and funciton of brain tissue

Strucutrual neuroimaging

Still pictures of brain

Functional neuroimaging

Acitvity when completing different taks

Post mortem studies

Autopsies after death, can reveal brain lesions or areas of damage that can account for changes or deficits in behaviour and ability

MEthod of loci

-complex info, commit lamialr sequnece of lcoations to emmory then visually link them with info that needs to be recalled.

-Set of locations are used to either physically or mentally walk through and recall info in a strucutred order

Sung narrative

way of mapping knowledge systems by creating pathways across Country that were laid down by the ancestors when the land was fo.

Often combined with dance or movement and use ryhtm, related to speciifc locaiton.

songlines

Sung narratives where knowledge is embedded in multimodal ways, and the person must travel a journey either physically or metaphorically across country.

Songliens are the stories of country and form a pattern of interconnecting pathways across country

-Ownership of songs and sognlines is determined by kinship strucutres

Encoding through multimodal

Sung narratives (all cultures)

Way of mapping knowledge systems by creating pathways across country that were laid down by the ancestors where the land was formed.

Often combined with dance or other movement

Songlines storage

Within the networks of kinship relaitonships and between the places and entities within country that the song is about.

COuntry and the apthways through country store the knowledge

Songline retrieval

Learning on country while navigating through country enhances contextual cues

Linking songlines to brain regions (hippocmapus)

-Stories and knowledge shared in songlines are encoded by hippocmapus.

-Imaganing places on country or being physiclally at those places on country can act as retireval cue

Linking songlines to brain regions (neocortex)

-Explcit memories are stored in the neocortex.

-Works with hippcoampus to retrieve long-term explcit memories

Differences between songlines and method of loci

-Songlines are sung

-Method of loci is not sung