Lecture 2 (slide 76-153)

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Last updated 4:45 PM on 6/9/26
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97 Terms

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HER2+

gBRCA mut

bekendste moleculaire subtypes borstkanker

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HER2+ similar principle as in lung cancer: activation of growth factor receptor signaling

principe HER2+ als moleculair subtype borstkanker

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NEU / ERBB2

synoniemen HER2

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Herceptin

Kadcyla

oudere en nieuwe therapie voor borstkanker tegen HER2+ subklasse

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Trastuzumab: monoclonal antibody against HER2 receptor

wat hebben herceptin en kadcyla gemeen?

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kadcyla: also emtansine (a chemotherapeutic agent), which is also released into the cell

verschil kadcyla en herceptin

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the antibody acts as a carrier for the chemotherapy agent = antibody-drug conjugate (blocking effect + additional chemotherapeutic effect)

principe antibody drug conjugate (ADC)

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RAS cycle

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guanine nucleotide exchange factor: switches RAS on

GEF

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GTPase activating protein: switches RAS off

GAP

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Hotspot activating mutations often occur at G12, G13 or Q61

oncogene mutaties in RAS

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Oncogene

is RAS an oncogene or tumor suppressor?

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NF1 (neurofibromatosis 1) is an example of a GAP, so a tumor suppressive gene

NF1 in context van RTK downstream pathways

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HRAS

NRAS

KRAS

three main RAS isoforms

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KRAS: very important

HRAS: not mutated at all

rol HRAS en KRAS in pancreatic cancer

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KRAS has a strong preference for the codon 12 mutations

voor wat voor mutaties heeft KRAS een sterke voorkeur?

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central nervous system tumors

voorbeeld tumor met weinig RAS mutaties

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melanoma (skin cancer) has over 30-40% of patients with BRAF activation. So very important oncogene in skin cancer!

belangrijk oncogene in skin cancer

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Know that patients with a BRAF hotspot mutation usually do not overlap with RAS mutations. Additional mutation in the same pathway gives little extra selective benefit

bestaat er overlap in BRAF en RAS mutaties?

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Vemurafenib (BRAF inhibitor)

Trametinib (MEK inhibitor)

belangrijke therapieën tegen melanoma

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V600E

belangrijke activating mutatie in BRAF

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colorectal carcinoma

waar kan je nog BRAF mutaties vinden (buiten melanoma)?

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Requirement of combination therapy

A: In the BRAF V600E cancer situation, the MAPK cascade drives proliferation with feedback regulation present

B: With BRAF inhibition (e.g. vemurafenib), mutant BRAF is blocked, but feedback release can reactivate upstream EGFR/RAS signaling and restore pathway activity, causing resistance

C: Therefore broader pathway blockade is needed, combining BRAF inhibition with EGFR and/or MEK/ERK inhibitors to suppress reactivation

waarom is combination therapy nodig bij BRAF V600E mutated tumors?

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AKT PI3K pathway

naast RAS/MAPK nog een belangrijk pathway in kanker

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Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase

PI3K

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a heterodimer lipid kinase consisting of an 85-kD subunit bound to a 110-kD catalytic subunit

hoe is PI3K opgebouwd?

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cell growth

effect AKT PI3K pathway

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PTEN is an important tumor suppressor in this pathway, antagonizing PI3K signaling

tumor suppressor in AKT PI3K pathway

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Proteus syndrome

overgrowth syndrome

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Usually germline cancer predisposition involves tumor suppressor genes rather than activating oncogenes

This case is an exception: postzygotic germline/mosaic activating mutation in the PI3K/AKT pathway (often AKT1), not inherited from the parents in the classic sense

waarom is Proteus syndrome zo belangrijk in onze context?

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MAX is an important dimerization partner of MYC, promoting transcriptional activation

belangrijke partner MYC

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MAD can compete with MYC for MAX binding, leading to repression / reduced mitogenic signaling

MAD in context MYC en MAX

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RB is a key gatekeeper of the G1/S transition. E2F transcription factors drive passage through the R-point and are normally suppressed by RB

belang RB

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RB is inactivated, E2F released, cell goes past the R-point

effect phosphorylatie van RB

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CDK4 is an important example in many tumor types because, together with cyclin D, it promotes progression through G1 toward S-phase

hoe gaat een cel van G1, naar de S-phase?

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  • RB wordt progressief meer gefosforyleerd tijdens G1

  • eerst vooral door Cyclin D–CDK4/6

  • later draagt ook Cyclin E–CDK2 bij

  • meer RB-fosforylatie → meer vrij E2F → overgang naar S-fase

Principe:
RB-inactivatie gebeurt stapsgewijs: vroege CDKs starten de fosforylatie, latere CDKs versterken ze zodat de cel door de G1/S-checkpoint gaat.

kinases die actief worden later in de cell cyle

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CDKN1A

which gene encodes p21?

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p21 is an upstream inhibitor of CDK2 (and CDKs), so acts as a tumor suppressive regulator

is p21 een oncogene of suppresor?

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Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) can act as oncogenic drivers when overactive

zijn CDKs oncogenes of suppressors?

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CCND1

which gene encodes cyclin D1?

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More Cyclin D1 (cofactor of CDK4/6) → more CDK4/6 activity → more proliferation.

wat maakt van CCND1 een oncogene?

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Glioblastoma

important kind of brain tumour

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  • chromothripsis veroorzaakt massale chromosomale herschikking

  • kan tegelijk oncogenen amplificeren en tumorsuppressoren deleteren

  • in glioblastoma bv. amplificatie van EGFR en CDK4

  • gevolg: sterke proliferatieve signaling en verlies van celcycluscontrole

Principe:
Chromothripsis kan in één catastrofale gebeurtenis meerdere cancer-driving copy number changes creëren.

waarom leidt chromothripsis tot glioblastoma?

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Cell-cycle control is not an isolated event: cyclin-CDK complexes are tightly linked to DNA-damage signaling

waarom is cyclin-CDK complexes niet het enige belangrijke bij cell cycle regulation?

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Fusion tyrosine kinase from t(9;22), classic driver of CML.

Wat is BCR-ABL

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SAC is an important checkpoint controlling progression from metaphase to anaphase, ensuring chromosomes are correctly attached to the spindle (spoelfiguur)

belang SAC

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Spindle assembly checkpoint

afkorting SAC

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  • APC/C is een E3 ubiquitin ligase

  • met CDC20 breekt het securin en cyclin B af

  • securin-afbraak → separase actief → sister chromatids kunnen scheiden

  • cyclin B-afbraak → CDK1-activiteit daalt → mitotic exit

  • later helpt APC/C-CDH1 extra mitotische regulatoren afbreken

Principe:
APC/C laat de cel pas van metafase naar anafase en uit mitose gaan wanneer chromosomen correct verdeeld kunnen worden.

belang APC/C in SAC

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CDK1 together with cyclin B is a key driver of mitosis. High CDK1-Cyclin B activity keeps the cell in mitosis until chromosomes are properly aligned

belangrijke driver van mitosis

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  • pro-mitotische transcriptiefactor

  • activeert genen nodig voor G2/M-transitie en mitose

  • overexpressie stimuleert proliferatie en chromosoomsegregatie

  • kan bijdragen aan genomische instabiliteit

Principe:
FOXM1 helpt cellen door de mitose; overexpressie kan tumorcellen sneller laten delen en genomische instabiliteit versterken.

wat is FOXM1 en zijn belang in kanker?

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pathways with eg p53 and RB stops cells with too short telomeres (senescence), but mutations can make cells go past this checkpoint, going to crisis.

Crisis is also overcome by activating telomerase or other mechanisms (TERT complex)

hoe overkomen kankercellen te korte telomeren?

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Catalytic reverse transcriptase subunit of telomerase.

wat is TERT?

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RNA template used by telomerase.

wat is TERC?

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p53

het belangrijkste gen dat zorgt voor senescence

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  • tumoren kunnen telomerase activeren om telomeren te onderhouden

  • mogelijke therapie: telomerase/telomeer-maintenance remmen

  • daarnaast: senolytics

    • drugs die senescente cellen selectief opruimen

Principe:
Bij tumoren met replicatieve immortality kan therapie mikken op telomeeronderhoud of op senescente cellen die tumorprogressie ondersteunen.

Therapie tegen tumoren met verhoogde telomerase activiteit

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increased transcription, gain/amplification, mutation or genomic rearrangements

Promoter mutations can create new ETS/TCF transcription factor binding sites, leading to higher TERT expression and increased telomerase activity

Enhancer hijacking

hoe kan TERT meer actief worden?

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ALT (alternative lengthening of telomeres)

alternatieve methode voor telomere maintenance

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telomerase-independent telomere maintenance through homologous recombination-based mechanisms

ALT does not rely on telomerase enzyme activity and is often associated with more genomic instability

=> Telomerase-dependent versus telomerase-independent telomere maintenance

mechanisme ALT (Alternative Lengthening of Telomers)

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Extrachromosomal circular C-rich telomeric DNA.

wat zijn c-circles?

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ALT-positive tumors.

waar vind je c-circles?

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Telomerase-positive telomeres are often more heterochromatic / compact, with repressive chromatin marks

ALT-positive telomeres are relatively more open / altered chromatin and show increased structures such as G4 DNA and R-loops

chromatin difference tussen ALT- en telomerase-positives

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ATRX helps maintain normal telomeric chromatin structure (linked to H3.3 deposition); loss or mutation of ATRX is frequently associated with ALT-positive tumors

belang ATRX bij ALT- en telomerase-positives

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TERRA is a telomeric non-coding RNA and is often increased/associated with ALT, together with markers such as C-circles and APBs

TERRA

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  • Nucleotide substitution

    • puntmutatie → eiwit wordt constitutief actief

  • Promotor hijacking

    • oncogen komt onder controle van sterke/actieve promotor

  • Gene fusion

    • fusiegen maakt nieuw oncogeen eiwit

  • Enhancer hijacking

    • sterke enhancer komt naast oncogen → overexpressie

  • Focal amplification

    • veel extra kopieën van oncogen → hogere expressie

  • Disruption of insulated neighborhoods

    • verstoring van CTCF/TAD-grenzen → verkeerde enhancer-promotor contacten

Principe:
Oncogene activatie kan gebeuren door het eiwit actiever te maken, de expressie te verhogen, of genregulatie verkeerd te herbedraden

Verschillende types van oncogene activatie

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Inactivating mutations are the most important mechanism of tumor suppressor loss; enhanced degradation is less common but possible

belangrijkste mechanisme van tumor suppressor loss

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Tumor suppressor genes are often linked to hereditary cancer predisposition syndromes when one mutant allele is inherited in the germline

Familial predisposition means increased risk, not certainty, of developing a certain tumor type

tumor suppressor genen en erfelijkheid

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A lot of tumor suppressor genes need to have both alleles inactivated for full loss of function

Knudson two hit hypothesis

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Hypophosphorylated RB = active brake; hyperphosphorylated RB = released brake

hypo- and hyperphosphorylated RB1

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13q14: Retinoblastoma

In this case, the translocation places the RB1 region on the derivative X chromosome. If that derivative X becomes inactivated in a subset of cells, RB1 can be functionally silenced

Loss/inactivation of RB1 leads to retinoblastoma (a retinal eye tumor)

typische kanker door RB1 translocation, ook belangrijk geweest voor de ontdekking

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  • ziektegen identificeren via zijn chromosomale locatie

  • start vanuit linkage/cytogenetische afwijking, niet vanuit gekende functie

  • daarna wordt gezocht welk gen in die regio verstoord is

  • voorbeeld: lokalisatie van RB1 bij retinoblastoma

Principe:
Positional cloning vindt een ziektegen door eerst de verdachte chromosoomregio te bepalen en daarna het causale gen daarin te identificeren.

positional cloning

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p16 and 15

suppressor CDK4

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p53 is a sequence-specific DNA binding protein that regulates transcription

p53

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  • N-terminale transactivation domains

    • activeren transcriptie van p53-targetgenen

  • Proline-rich domain

    • belangrijk voor regulatie/apoptotische functies

  • Centrale DNA-binding domain

    • bindt specifieke DNA-sequenties

    • vaakst gemuteerd in kanker

  • C-terminus

    • bevat nuclear localization signals

  • Oligomerization domain

    • nodig om p53 als tetramer te laten werken

Principe:
p53 is een transcriptiefactor; vooral het DNA-bindend domein en de tetramervorming zijn cruciaal voor zijn tumorsuppressorfunctie.

onderdelen p53

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DNA-damage by UV → phosphorylation of p53 / changes in MDM2 → p53 increase → activates p21 → inhibits cyclin-CDK complexes → stops cell cycle for DNA-repair

cascade DNA damage by UV en p53

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Ubiquitinates p53 for degradation.

rol MDM2

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inhibits MDM2

=> increases p53

effect ARF

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p53 is often active as a tetramer

wat voor eiwit is p53? (in zin van opbouw)

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p16 (INK4A) and p14 (ARF) (both tumor suppressors)

belangrijke eiwitten komende van CDKN2A

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inhibiting CDK4/6

rol INK4A

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E2F is a key transcription factor that promotes G1/S cell-cycle progression by activating genes needed for DNA replication and proliferation. Normally it is restrained by RB. When E2F becomes abnormally elevated, cells sense this oncogenic signal and induce ARF, which stabilizes p53 and can trigger apoptosis or growth arrest.

on / off switch

belang E2F

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Fine-tuning of p53 response.

belang PTM’s bij p53

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single hit is sufficient for accelerating cancer formation

is de two hit hypothesis geldig bij p53?

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~50% of tumors

komen p53 mutaties frequent voor?

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>75% of mutations (>15.000 known) are missense rather then nonsense

wat voor mutaties heb je bij p53?

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Partial reduction of function

hypomorphs

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gain of new oncogenic function

neomorphic mutant

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GOF present, but less frequent

Mogelijke mutaties bij p53

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adenomatosis polyposis coli – colon cancer

APC (de kanker, niet het complex)

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FAP (Familial Adenomatous Polyposis)

HNPCC: hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer:

two syndromen dat zorgt voor een hoog risico in colorectal cancer

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APC, it normally controls Wnt by beta-catenin, but mutation in APC leads to a lot of Wnt, so a lot of growth

gen belangrijk in FAP

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germline mutations leading to mismatch repair defect

oorzaak HNPCC

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Gorlin syndrome (Sonic Hedgehog pathway)

syndroom gelinkt met medulloblastoma

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Break-induced Telomere Synthesis (BITS)

homologous recombination bij ALT

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  • mutaties in de TERT-promotor

  • creëren nieuwe bindingsplaatsen voor transcriptiefactoren

    • bv. ETS/TCF

  • daardoor stijgt TERT-expressie

  • gevolg: meer telomerase-activiteit en telomeeronderhoud

Principe:
TERT-promotormutaties activeren telomerase door de expressie van TERT transcriptioneel te verhogen

promotor mutaties bij telomerase activation

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li-fraumeni

syndrome linked met TP53 mutation

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Aneuploidy

inequal segregation of the chromosomes, sometimes explained by loss of BUB1

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Lost of E-cadherin can lead to spread of cells. In germline, also predisposes patients

E-cadherin and predisposition of patients