Semantics _ C3

word sense

In linguistics, a _______________ is one of the meanings of a word (or a lexeme).

context

A dictionary may have over 50 different senses of the word "play", each of these having a different meaning based on the _______________ of the word's usage in a sentence.

internal relationship

The sense of a word/lexeme shows the _______________ between that word and others in the vocabulary of a language.

semantic relationship

The sense of an expression is its place in a system of _______________ with other expressions in the language.

sense relations

The sense of an expression is the whole set of _______________ it contracts with other expressions in the language.

sum

The sense of an expression can be thought of as the _______________ of its sense properties and sense relations with other expressions.

meaning

The _______________ that a lexeme has because of relationships with other lexemes is the sense of that lexeme.

context

Relationships are shown in the way word meanings vary with _______________.

Syntagmatic

_______________ (combinatorial) relation is the mutual combination/association of two or more words in a sequence so that the meaning of each is affected by the other(s).

Paradigmatic

_______________ (substitutional) relation is a relation of choice where we choose from among a number of possible words that can fill the same blank.

referring expression

A _______________ is any expression, usually a noun phrase, that is used in an utterance to refer to something outside language.

specific entity

The purpose of a referring expression is to help the listener or reader understand which _______________ is being talked about in a given context.

primary

A _______________ referring expression is a NP like a dog or your friend, and they refer directly to their referents.

secondary

A _______________ referring expression refers indirectly, and their referents can only be determined from context (e.g., he, the big ones, ours).

referent

A _______________ is the actual thing, object, or concept that a word or expression refers to in the real world or in a specific context.

unique

A referring expression has fixed or _______________ reference when the referent is a unique entity or unique set of entities (e.g., Lake Ontario, Japan).

variable

A referring expression has _______________ or non-unique reference if its referent may be different every time it is used (e.g., That dog, my uncle).

Concrete referents

_______________ are concrete objects that can be seen or touched, such as a dog, door, leaf, or stone.

Abstract referents

_______________ cannot be perceived directly through the sense, such as an idea, problem, reason, or knowledge.

Concrete countable

_______________ referents refer to objects that are separate from one another, such as apples, coins, pens, and toothbrushes.

Non-countable

_______________ referents include 3 types: continuous substances, substances of numerous particles not worth counting, and abstract indivisible referents.

Reference

_______________ is the relationship between language (an expression) and the world (its referent).

variable reference

When one linguistic expression refers to different referents, it has _______________.

constant referent

When one linguistic expression refers to the same referent, it has _______________.

co-reference

When two or more linguistic expressions share the same referent, they have _______________.

sense

Every expression that has meaning has _______________, but not every expression has reference.

reference

The King of VN has some sense but no _______________ because the King of VN does not exist.

extension

A lexeme's or word's _______________ is the set of entities that it denotes in the world.

intension

The _______________ of any lexeme is the set of properties shared by all members of the extension.

sense and reference

Intension and extension are roughly equivalent to the more modern terms _______________, respectively.

prototype

A _______________ is an object or referent that is considered typical of the whole set, like a robin or pigeon for a bird.

stereotype

A _______________ is a list of typical characteristics describing a prototype.

Semantic change

_______________ refers to the process by which the meanings of words evolve over time.

Broadening

_______________ of meaning is when the meaning is extended or generalized, such as "holiday" evolving from a holy day to any vacation.

Narrowing

_______________ of meaning is when the meaning is more specialized, more specific, less general or less inclusive than its historically earlier form.

Degradation

_______________ of meaning is when a word becomes more negative or less favorable, such as "villain" evolving from a farm worker to a wicked schemer.

Elevation

_______________ of meaning is when the meaning of a word becomes more positive or favorable, such as "minister" evolving from a servant to the head of a state department.

Selectional restrictions

_______________ are requirements on the compatibility and combinability of words.

Semantic anomaly

_______________ appears when selectional restrictions are violated, such as "The goal flew north".

Figurative language

_______________ violates or breaks selectional restrictions, but the violations or breaks are interpretable.

figure of speech

A _______________ is an expression used to make a greater effect on your reader or listener.

Simile

_______________ is the use of comparison of one thing with another, comparing two dissimilar things using "like" or "as".

Metaphor

_______________ is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarities between these two.

conceptual projection

Definition in the view of cognitive linguistics states that metaphor is a _______________ whereby one experiential domain is partially understood in terms of another.

Living metaphor

_______________ is a word used in unusual, novel meaning and metaphor is felt as such, like "She lent wings to his imagination".

Faded metaphor

_______________ is the one which has lost its freshness because of long use and became habitual, like "skeleton in the closet".

Dead metaphor

_______________ is the word which has lost its metaphoric meaning and are used only figuratively, like "the leg of the table".

Metonymy

_______________ is the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another to which it is related or with which it is related.

Synecdoche

_______________ is a special kind of metonymy in which a part or aspect of a person or object is meant to refer to the whole person or object.

Hyperbole

_______________ is an exaggerated statement not meant to be understood literally, but with a powerful effect, like "I was so hungry, I could eat a horse".

Litotes

_______________ is an understatement expressing something in the affirmative by the negative of its contrary, like "He was no coward".

Personification

_______________ is a special kind of metaphor in which some human characteristic is attributed to an inanimate object or abstract notion.

Irony

_______________ is the expression of one's meaning by saying the direct opposite of one's thoughts in order to be emphatic, amusing, sarcastic etc.

Euphemism

_______________ is the use of a milder expression for something unpleasant, acting as a non-offensive way to say an offensive thing.

Oxymoron

_______________ (paradox) refers to expressions that contain an explicit contradiction, like "sweet sorrow" or "silent scream".

Tautology

_______________ refers to expressions which are "true by definition", offering no new information, like "free gift" or "past history".

Synesthesia

_______________ refers to expressions that combine a word from one sensory domain with a word from another sensory domain, like "cold response".