Chapter 12-13

Is prejudice an attiude?

Yes

What are the 3 components of attitudes?

1. cognitive

2. affective/emotional

3. behavioral

What is prejudice?

A hostile/negative attitude towards people in a group based solely on group membership

-ex: believing old people are bad with technology

The mind can not avoid creating categories, putting some people into one group based on certain characteristics... what is this an example of?

Schema: a mental structure that organizes one's knowledge about the world

Is it true there is only negative stereotypes?

No, there is positive and negative ones... they both still interpret as a category instead as an individual

What is benevolent sexism?

Behaviors that are on their face positive but are rooted in women being "less than"

-ex: "women should be cherished and protected by men"

-It sounds positive on the surface—that's what makes it tricky—but the key is that it still assumes women are weaker, less capable, or need protection

What is hostile sexism?

Apathy towards women - the belief that women are inferior to men (negative stereotypes of women)

-ex: women are too emotional to be leaders

What is the Hannah study?

-Will test a form for evaluating student fit for "special programs"

-See video & get 'fact sheets' (see about the kids academic abilities)

-Reference stereotype linking socio-economic status (SES) & academic achievement/intelligence (associating poor status with poor school and vice versa)

-Hannah (4th grade girl) depicted as - given a video about Hannah:

~Low SES, urban (negative expectancy)

~High SES, suburban (positive expectancy)

-See additional (or not) of Hannah being tested - 12 mins long and seeing Hannah responding to the questions asked

~Hannah's performance is ambiguous

-DV: area scores, overall performance, work habitats, motivation, emotional maturity, sociability, cognitive skill

-Results:

~For positive expectancy and shown with video of performance -> put her a grade level above and vice versa for negative expectancy

~Negative expectancy + video = put her a grade level lower

What is expectancy confirmation?

Expectations derived from stereotypes are not inherently accurate, but individuals often seek and interpret information in ways that confirm those expectations, reinforcing the stereotype

-ex: If someone believes "teenagers are irresponsible," they'll notice every time a teen acts carelessly—but overlook responsible behavior.

What is the skin conductance experiment?

-ranked and rated ethnic and national groups

-students connected to a skin conductance machine to measure physiological arousal

they listened to good statements about their most disliked groups and bad statements about their most liked group

-they also heard good and bad statements about two neutral groups -they ranked in the middle

-results: students' skin conductance spiked when they heard their most disliked group complimented or their most liked group hated on compared to the equivalent statements about neutral groups

-prejudice is such a strong attitude that it gets under your skin to hear someone say something nice about a group you do not like

All group stereotypes can be classified along two universal person perception?

Warmth and competence

-groups that are competent and not warm are envied whereas, groups that are warm but not competent are pitied

-we admire groups that we consider to be both warm and competent

-We feel contempt towards groups that we view as neither warm nor competent

What is discrimination?

unjust treatment of someone based solely on their membership in a group

-can be activated when a person is angered or insulted

What is microaggressions?

slights and put-downs -intentional or unintentional- that many minorities routinely encounter

How does culture impact aggression?

Maybe the environment is a stronger factor in aggression for human society. Whatever culture you're in, the children are raised up as what is culturally appropriate.

What is the shock study?

-students told they will be doing electric shock on another student - either white or black as part of a study on biofeedback

-at first, students gave lower intensity shocks to black than to whites-to not show prejudice

-student then overheard the learners making rude comments about them and that made them mad -> lead to administer higher shocks on black learner that student worked with than students who worked with a white learner

What are implicit prejudices?

Prejudices that people might not be aware of consciously

What are automatic prejudices?

A person know they are prejudiced but chose not to express it in public

What is the Bogus pipeline study? (a way to identify suppressed prejudice)

We like people to like us - normative conformity so we dont show our prejudices

-ps hooked up to an impressive-looking machine and told it was a lie detector but it was just a hardware that did nothing

-ps randomly assigned to one of two conditions:

-they indicated their attitudes either on a questionnaire (easy to give socially correct responses

-or using the bogus pipeline where they believed the machine would reveal the truth

-results: people expressed more racial prejudice when bogus pipeline was used

what is the identical resume to potential employers study? (a way to identify suppress prejudice?

-send identical resumes to potential employers, varying only a name that indicates gender, implies race, mentions religious affiliation, or describes an applicant as obese - this method can reveal other prejudices when combined with social media

-researchers found employers did not discriminate on sexual orientation

-but employers in the most conservative states revealed an anti-Muslim bias: Christian applicants were more likely to get callback

What is Implicit Association Test (IAT)-based on priming? (another way to identify suppress prejudice)

measures the speed of people's positive and negative associations to a target group

how it works:

-sit at a computer and show faces that you must sort quickly, pressing left key for black face and right key for white face AND do the same for positive and negative words -> then do with combination of faces and words

-Related concepts prime each other ->speed response

Opposed concepts inhibit each other -> slow response

-results: people respond more quickly when white face pairs with positive and when black faces paired with negative words

What are the problems with IAT?

-may reflect cultural norms than individual prejudices

-captures cultural stereotypes than people's real feelings

-may reflect actual association between two traits but not prejudice

What is self-fulling prophency?

When you expect something about a person, you treat them based on that expectation—and your behavior makes them act in a way that confirms your belief.

-that someone that is treated -> may develop self-concept: the way they view themselves

What is the interview study?

Study 1

-White student plays role of employer to black and white "applicants" (really confederates)

-Behavior of interviewers coded:

-Looking at the behaviors: far or close distance, forward or back lean, less or more eye contact, shoulder orientation, related behaviors, and interview length speech error rate

-Point: without instructions, expectations based on group stereotypes leaked into nonverbal behavior (towards black applicants than white)

Study 2

-Same interview setup, but...

-All involved are white

~Interviewer: research assistant

~Applicants: naive participants

-White RA (researcher assistants) trained to respond to white Ps with immediate or non-immediate behaviors:

~Seating distance (nearer/farther)

~Smoothness of speech (fluid/error-ridden)

~Length of interview (longer/shorter)

DVs:

-Interview performance (by other group)

-Reciprocated immediacy behaviors

-Ps post-interview ratings

Results:

-Immediate ->ps performance was higher than non-immediate

-Immediate behaviors were closer than non-immediate

-Immediate mood were higher, interviewer friendless were high, and interviewer adequacy high

Self-fulfilling prophecy -> react to someone the way they treat you

What is social identity threat?

The anxiety created when people are judged solely as a group member, not an individual

1. Identity needs to be salient (person is aware of their group identity)

2. Tasks needs to be relevant to social identity (task connects to the stereotype)

What is Stereotype threat?

experience of being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes about your group

What is the test-taking study?

-white and black students were administered a difficult test (GRE)

-half the students of each group led to believe that the investigator was interested in measuring their intellectual ability

-other half believed that investigator was examining the process of test-taking but did not care about students' abilities

-results: white performed equally well (or poor) regardless of whether or not they believed the test was being used as a diagnostic tool

~black students who believed their abilities were not being measured performed as well as the white students

~black who thought the test was measuring their abilities did not perform as well as other black students in other group

~black students who thought researchers were investigating test-taking performed equally well as white

-However, if test taker indicate their race -> black perform worse but no effect on performance for white

How to reverse the effects of social threat?

if thinking about a negatively stereotyped identity can harm performance, then drawing on an identity that has a counter-stereotype ought to help performance

What is self-affirmation?

the practice of reminding yourself realistically of your good qualities or experiences that made you feel successful or proud

-self-affirmation is a counter-stereotype approach

What is Institutional discrimination? (normative rules)

when companies and other institutions are legally permitted or socially engaged to discriminate on the basis of race, gender, or other categories, prejudice will seem normal

-ex: schools in lower-income minority areas receive less funding leading to fewer resources, etc.

What is normative conformity?

the tendency to go along with the group to fulfill the group's expectation and gain acceptance

What is the women confrontation study?

-1 male confederate repeatedly made sexist remarks

-women who valued confronting - but did not say anything when given the opportunity -> later evaluated the confederate more highly than women who did not care about speaking out

people who witness someone confront prejudice later exhibit less prejudice and stereotyping

What is social identity?

The part of a person's self-concept that is based on their identification with a nation, religious or political group, occupation, or other social affiliation

What is ethnocentrism?

the belief that your own culture, nation, or religion is superior to all others

What is in-group bias?

A tendency to favor members of one's own groups

-> often leads to o unfair treatment of others because we defined them as being in the out-group

What is out-group homogeneity?

The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous)

What is the princeton and rutgers study?

-male students at the two schools watched videotaped scenes in which three different young men were asked to make a decision - whether he wanted to listen to rock music or classical music while participating in an experiment

-The participants were told that the man was either a Princeton or a Rutgers student, so for some of them, the student in the videotape was an in-group member and for others an out-group member. Participants had to predict what the man in the videotape would choose. After they saw the man make his choice (e.g., rock or classical music), they were asked to predict what percentage of male students at that institution would make the same choice.

-results: the target person was an out-group member, the participants believed his choice was more predictive of what his peers would choose than when he was an in-group member

-simply put: if you know something about one out-group member, you are more likely to feel you know something about all of them

What is the British school boy study? (minimal groups-groups created based on trivial criteria)

-the boys were shown a set of slides with varying numbers of dots on them

-the boys were asked to guess how many dots there were

-the boys were told that they were "overestimators" or "underestimators" and were then asked to work on another task

-in this phase, they had a chance to give points to other boys identified as overestimators or underestimators

-almost each boy assigned more points to boys he thought were Ike him

what is blaming the victim?

when people say it's the victim's fault that something bad happened to them, because of what they are like or what they did-motivated to see the world as fair

what is Realistic conflict theory?

The idea that limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination

What is the boy scout camp study?

-ps in the camp were young boys who were randomly assigned to one of the two groups - eagles or the rattlers

-each group stayed in its own cabin; cabins were far apart to reduce contact between two groups

-The boys were placed in situations to increase liking of their own group through biking, hiking, etc.

-researchers then developed competitive activities where awards goes to the winning team

-the games created feelings of tensions between the groups

-to further the tension, researchers told each group different start time so that eagles arrived earlier than rattlers

-the eagles arrived and ate well compared to the rattlers -> rattlers angry and cussed the eagles out = fighting

What is contact hypothesis?

Certain kinds of contact in certain situations can reduce prejudice

What are the contact hypothesis requirements?

1. Sides must have a common goal AND must depend on each other to accomplish that goal.

2. Exposed to >1 member of other group

3. Get to know others in friendly, informal setting

4. Equal Status

5. Social norms must promote & support equality

What is habit-breaking intervention?

People who are:

-Aware of their biases

-Concerned about consequences of biases

What is extended contact effect?

knowing an in-group member has out-group friends is sufficient to reduce prejudice

What is intergroup contact?

direct interaction between members of different groups reduce prejudice

4 conditions:

-Both groups are of equal status

-Both share a common goal that generates awareness of their shared interested and common humanity

-The contact involves intergroup cooperation

-Their contact is supported by law or local custom (social norms)

What is scout boy study part 2?

-Researchers set up situations to have the two groups work on a common goal

-They set up emergency situation by damaging the water supply system (one of the situations)

what is Interdependence?

The situation that exists when two or more groups need to depend on one another to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them

What is jigsaw classroom?

A classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small, multiethnic groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material -> can lead to empathy

What is aggression?

Intentional behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain

What is Hostile aggression?

an act of aggression stemming from feelings of anger, with the goal of inflicting pain or injury

-ex: when I slap jonathan

What is Instrumental aggression?

aggression that is done as a means to achieve some goal other than causing pain

-ex: when two wolves are fighting for leadership in a pack

What is symbolic aggression?

Indirect aggression harming another through gossip, character assault, damage to property, or interference with goal achievement.

-ex: giving someone an intentional rude eye roll

What is relational aggression?

harming another person through the manipulation of relationships usually by acts of talking behind someone's back, spreading false rumors, etc. (more common in females)

What is passive aggression?

Intentionally not doing something in which you might otherwise engage in order to hurt someone or something

-ex: A son does not write his daily notes to his mother which hurts his mothers feelings

Whats the hormone that fuels male aggression?

testosterone

What is Challenge hypothesis?

hypothesis that testosterone relates to aggression only when there are opportunities for reproduction

What is dual-hormone hypothesis?

hypothesis that testosterone relates to dominance-seeking behavior only when the stress hormone, cortisol is not elevated

Whats the hormone that relates to females aggression?

Estradiol

What is the culture of honor study?

-Insult, aggression and the southern culture of honor experiment

~They looked at rates of southern and northern united states with rural areas

~Like rural areas in the south is higher than rural areas in the north

~When you talk about aggression in their region, they would talk about it as a cultural thing

-Herder culture more protective/aggressive

~If your farm, it will be hard for people to steal stuff because requires lots of harvesting

~Animals have legs so it's easier to take them

~I can build a reputation to be aggressive so they don't take my cattle

-Linked to social norms and gender roles

~People will be more comfortable about aggression because in their culture that is acceptable and okay

when people feel provoked and entitled to retaliate -> willingness to inflict physical harm

What is the crayon study?

In one study of 3- to 5-year-old children playing in groups of three, the kids were instructed to use a crayon to color in a picture on a white sheet of paper. Three crayons were provided, but only one was a color (orange), and the other two were white. Naturally, the children all wanted the orange crayon. The boys used physical aggression to get it, hitting or pushing the child who had the orange crayon. The girls used relational aggression, spreading rumors about the child with the orange crayon or ignoring her to make her cry

What is the bobo doll study?

-Have an adult knock around a bobo doll (smack, strike, kick, etc.)

-Kids were then allowed to play with the doll

-Children imitated the aggressive adults and treated the doll in almost exactly the same ways

Aggression can result from children imitating adult behavior

What toxin can increase physical and relational aggression

alcohol

What is the "think-drink" effect?

when people expect alcohol to have certain effects on them, it often does

what is the Frustration-aggression theory?

The theory that frustration—the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal—increases the probability of an aggressive response

1.Frustration always produces aggression...

2....and aggression is always the result of frustration (Dollard et al. 1939)

What is Berkowitz Revision?

experiencing a negative emotion (e.g.;anger, arousal) in the presence of a negative condition or cognition makes aggression more likely - negative conditions like temperature, pain - negative cognition like you don't like people, think people are dumb, guns (if you like or don't like guns because guns are meant to kill things)

1. Frustration produces a readiness to aggression...

2...which will lead to aggression if the situation supports it

What is the gun experiment?

-Cover: examine effects of stress on problem solving (have to give you, 1-10 electric shock)

~If solution is good, 1 shock

~If solution is bad, 10 shock

~The better the solution, the fewer the shocks

~You're going to write your essay first, and once you're done, you trade places with the other

IV1: # of shocks received

-(anger; 1 (not angry) / 7 (angry))

IV2: items present (try to get negative cognition)

-(nothing/racquet/guns/assoc. gun)

-Everyone got the same essay

-The two other conditions have a shotgun or a pistol:

~You're told don't worry about it a research is using it for another study

~Or they have an association with another study for the guns

DV: # of shocks give - would you give somebody more shocks

-If you receive 1 shock, give 2-3 shocks

-If you're given 7 shocks, everybody gave more shocks if they were given 1 shock

-Looking overall of the 7 shocks, there is a significant effect of guns compared to the racquets

-This called the weapons effect, support for this

What is the weapons effect?

an increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon

What are Deontological thinkers?

people who believe in absolute moral truths

What are Utilitarian thinkers?

People who believe that the most moral decision is the one that does the greatest good for the greatest number of people

What is Dehumanization?

The process whereby we deny another human being their full humanity-It means treating or thinking of someone like they are an animal, object, or “not fully human.”

What is compassion collapse?

The decreasing amount of compassion felt for victims of mass casualties versus the amount they feel for a single victim

Reasons why exposure to volence increase aggression in those "media consumers"

1. Norms: if they can do it, so can I. When people see characters behaving violently, it may weaken their previously learned inhibitions against violent behavior.

2. Observational Learning: Oh, so that's how you do it! When people see characters behaving violently, it might trigger imitation, providing them with ideas as to how they might go about it.

3. Misattribution: Those feelings I am having must be real anger rather than merely my reaction to a stressful day. Watching violence may put people more in touch with their feelings of anger and make an aggressive response more likely through priming. Having recently viewed violence, someone might interpret their own feelings of mild irritation as intense anger and then be more likely to lash out.

4. Habituation: Ho-hum, another brutal beating. What's on the other channel? Watching a lot of mayhem seems to reduce both our sense of horror about violence and our sympathy for the victims, making it easier for us to live with violence and perhaps easier for us to act aggressively.

5. Self-fulfilling Prophecy: I had better get them before they get me! If watching a lot of television makes people think the world is a dangerous place, they might be more apt to be hostile to a stranger who approaches them on the street.

Punishment can indeed act as a deterrent but if only two conditions are met:

1.Punishment must be prompt

2.And certain

What is Catharsis?

Acting out aggressive feelings (or expressing strong emotions) can "release" built-up tension and make a person feel calmer afterward

-ex: yelling into a pillow bc ur mad