Unit 4 Exam

What role does insulin play in diabetes?

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose by facilitating glucose uptake into cells. In diabetes, insufficient insulin production or resistance to insulin leads to elevated blood sugar levels.

How has the diagnosis and treatment for diabetes changed in the last two hundred years?

Before 1921, diabetes was often fatal, treated with starvation diets. The discovery of insulin in 1921 revolutionized care. Since then, blood glucose monitoring, HbA1c testing, oral medications, insulin pumps, and continuous glucose monitors have greatly improved outcomes.

How can bacterial plasmids be used to produce proteins such as insulin?

Plasmids are circular DNA molecules used in genetic engineering. Scientists insert the human insulin gene into a plasmid, introduce it into bacteria, and induce protein expression. The bacteria then produce human insulin, which can be purified for medical use.

What is recombinant DNA technology?

Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from different sources to create new genetic sequences. It allows insertion of human genes, such as insulin, into bacterial plasmids to produce therapeutic proteins.

What is bacterial transformation?

Bacterial transformation is the process by which bacteria take up foreign DNA, such as recombinant plasmids, from their environment and express the introduced genes.

How does amino acid structure relate to the overall shape of a protein?

The chemical properties of amino acid side chains drive folding and bonding, determining the protein’s unique three-dimensional structure, which is essential for its function.

What is chromatography?

Chromatography is a laboratory technique used to separate components of a mixture based on differences in chemical properties such as polarity or size.

How can chromatography be used to separate a mixture of proteins?

Proteins are separated by passing them through a stationary phase while a mobile phase carries them. Differences in protein size, charge, or polarity cause them to move at different rates, enabling separation.

How can electrophoresis be used to check the purity of a protein sample?

By applying an electric field, proteins migrate based on size/charge; a pure sample shows a single band, while impurities show multiple bands.

What is SDS-PAGE?

Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; a technique that separates proteins by size after denaturing them with SDS

How does protein electrophoresis differ from DNA electrophoresis?

Protein electrophoresis separates proteins by size/charge, often using SDS; DNA electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by length using agarose gels.

What is the purpose of the kidneys?

Kidneys filter blood, remove waste, balance electrolytes, and regulate fluid levels.

What is End Stage Renal Disease (ESRD)?

Stage 5 chronic kidney disease where kidneys fail to function regularly, requiring dialysis or transplant.

How is ESRD diagnosed?

Through low eGFR, high albumin in urine, abnormal blood pressure, and symptoms of kidney failure (fatigue, itching, nausea, swelling etc)

What are the treatment options or medical interventions for patients with ESRD?

Dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) or kidney transplant from a donor.

How does dialysis work?

Waste and excess fluid are removed from blood using a semipermeable membrane, either externally via a machine (hemodialysis) or internally (peritoneal dialysis)

What are the pros and cons of hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, and kidney transplant for a patient with end-stage renal disease?

Hemodialysis is effective but time-consuming and requires clinic visits. Peritoneal dialysis is home-based but risks infection. Transplant is a long-term solution but requires a donor and immunosuppressants.

What (or who) decides who should receive a donated organ?

Organ allocation prioritizes patients based on medical urgency, younger age, close proximity to the donor hospital, HLA and blood‑type compatibility, size match, and time spent on the waitlist.

How are organ donors and recipients matched?

By blood typing & HLA typing.

What are the different blood types?

The blood types are A, B, AB, and O (each Rh+ or Rh−), where O− donates to all types, O+ donates to all Rh+ types, A donates to A and AB, B donates to B and AB, and AB can only donate to AB.

What is HLA typing?

Human leukocyte antigen typing identifies genetic markers on white blood cells to ensure compatibility

Why are tissue engineering and xenotransplantation being investigated?

To address organ shortages by creating lab-grown tissues or using animal organs for transplantation

What parts of the human body can be replaced?

Organs (kidney, heart, liver), tissues (skin, cartilage), and prosthetics for limbs.

What are the benefits and risks of using xenotransplantation and tissue engineering for replacement organs?

Benefits: increased organ supply; Risks: immune rejection, infection, ethical concerns.

What are the ethical considerations for xenotransplantation and tissue engineering?

Concerns include animal welfare, long-term safety, fairness in access, and potential misuse of enhancement technologies.

How can the human body be remodeled or enhanced to create a “superhuman"?

Through genetic engineering, prosthetics & tissue engineering.

What role do medical interventions play in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease?

They prevent illness (vaccines), diagnose conditions (tests, imaging), and treat diseases (drugs, surgery, therapies).