Psychology Chapter 2 Flashcards

This set of 200 flashcards covers the fundamental concepts of neural communication, brain structures, chemical messengers, and mapping techniques from the Chapter 2 lecture notes.

What two main structures make up the central nervous system?

The brain and the spinal cord

Which part of the nervous system receives, processes, interprets, and stores incoming sensory information?

The central nervous system

How many total pairs of nerves are in the peripheral nervous system?

$43$ pairs

How many pairs of cranial nerves enter the brain directly?

$12$ pairs

How many pairs of spinal nerves enter the spinal cord at the spaces between the vertebrae?

$31$ pairs

What is the spinal cord consisting of?

A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back

What are spinal reflexes?

Automatic behaviors that occur on their own, without any help from the brain

What is an example of a spinal reflex provided in the text?

Pulling your hand away from a burning hot surface

Which nervous system handles the input and output of the central nervous system?

The peripheral nervous system

What are the two main parts of the peripheral nervous system?

The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

Which part of the autonomic nervous system prepares the body to expend energy?

The sympathetic nervous system

Which part of the autonomic nervous system restores and conserves energy?

The parasympathetic nervous system

What are neurons?

The brain’s communication specialists that transmit information to, from, and within the central nervous system

What are the functions of glia in the brain?

Provide neurons with nutrients, insulate them, protect the brain from toxins, and remove cellular debris

Approximately how many types of neurons have been identified in mammals?

More than $200$ types

What is the function of the dendrites?

Receive information from other neurons and transmit messages toward the cell body

What are the three main parts of a neuron?

Dendrites, cell body, and axon

What is the function of the cell body?

Keeps the neuron alive and determines whether it should fire

What is the function of the axon?

Transmits messages away from the cell body to other neurons, or to muscles or glands

What surrounds the axon and prevents signal interference while speeding up conduction?

The myelin sheath

What is neurogenesis?

The production of new neurons from immature stem cells

What are stem cells?

Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to develop into mature cells

At what stage do embryonic stem cells appear in an embryo?

When the embryo is just a few days old, consisting of approximately $100$ cells

What is a synapse?

The site where transmission of a nerve impulse from one nerve cell to another occurs

What three things are included in the synapse?

The axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and receptor sites

What is an action potential?

A brief change in electrical voltage that occurs between the inside and outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated

What is released from synaptic vesicles when an electric impulse reaches the axon terminal?

Neurotransmitters

Which neurotransmitter is involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and pleasure?

Dopamine

Which neurotransmitter is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain?

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid)

What is the role of serotonin?

It is one of the versatile couriers in the nervous system

What are hormones?

Chemical substances that affect the functioning of other organs and are released into the bloodstream

Which gland releases hormones and regulates other endocrine glands?

The pituitary gland

What is the function of melatonin?

Regulates daily biological rhythms and promotes sleep

What hormone facilitates lactation and bonding at birth?

Oxytocin

What are the three main adrenal hormones mentioned?

Cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine

What are the three main categories of sex hormones?

Androgens, estrogens, and progesterone

What are neuromodulators?

Neurochemicals that vary the strength of the functioning of neurons and neurotransmitters

What role do endorphins play?

Pain reduction, pleasure, and memory

What is the lesion method in brain research?

The removal or disabling of a brain structure to understand its function, used only in nonhuman animals

What does TMS stand for?

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

How does TMS manipulate brain cells?

By using a powerful magnetic field produced by a wire coil placed on a person’s head

What is tDCS?

Transcranial direct current stimulation

How does tDCS identify the functions of brain regions?

By applying a very small electric current to stimulate or suppress activity in parts of the cortex

What does an EEG record?

Neural activity detected by electrodes on the scalp

What is an event-related potential (ERP)?

A technique that isolates the neural activity associated with a specific stimulus or event

What is a PET scan?

A method for analyzing biochemical activity using injections of a glucose-like substance with a radioactive element

What does MRI stand for?

Magnetic resonance imaging

How does an MRI produce pictures of the brain?

By using magnetic fields to produce vibrations in atoms, which are detected by receivers and turned into pictures

Which scanning technique works at a much higher rate than a standard MRI?

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Where is the brain stem located?

At the top of the spinal cord

What are the two main structures of the brain stem?

The medulla and the pons

What is the function of the pons?

Involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming

What is the function of the medulla?

Responsible for automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate

What is the Reticular Activating System (RAS)?

A dense network of neurons in the brain stem that arouses the cortex and screens information

Which structure regulates movement and balance and is involved in classical conditioning?

The cerebellum

What is the function of the thalamus?

Relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex

Which sense is NOT relayed by the thalamus?

Smell

What structure processes smell before it reacher higher centers?

The olfactory bulb

What is the hypothalamus involved in?

Drives vital to survival such as hunger, thirst, emotion, sex, and reproduction

Which brain structure controls the autonomic nervous system?

The hypothalamus

What is the amygdala responsible for?

Arousal, regulation of emotion, and the initial emotional response to sensory information

What is the main role of the hippocampus?

Storage of new information in memory and enabling spatial memory for navigation

What is the largest brain structure?

The cerebrum

What connects the two cerebral hemispheres?

The corpus callosum

What is lateralization?

Specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operations

What is the cerebral cortex?

Several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum, responsible for higher mental functions

What proportion of all cells in the human brain are contained in the cerebral cortex?

Almost ${3/4}$

What is the primary function of the occipital lobes?

Visual processing

What is the primary function of the parietal lobes?

Processing of pressure, pain, touch, and temperature

Where is the auditory cortex located?

In the temporal lobes

What specialized function occurs in the left temporal lobe?

Language comprehension

What are the frontal lobes involved in?

Emotion, planning, creative thinking, initiating, and motor control

What specialized function occur in the left frontal lobe?

Speech production

Where is the prefrontal cortex located?

The most forward part of the frontal lobes

What percentage of the human cortex is made up by the prefrontal cortex?

Approximately ${1/3}$

The prefrontal cortex is associated with what type of judgment?

Social judgment and rational decision making

Which famous medical case is associated with damage to the prefrontal cortex?

The Phineas Gage case

Who first observed the effects of left hemisphere damage in $1861$?

Paul Broca

What are the common difficulties following left hemisphere damage?

Difficulties reading, identifying objects, and keeping events in correct order

What are the common difficulties following right hemisphere damage?

Difficulty identifying faces, interpreting emotional expressions, and understanding music or art

In $1953$, which researchers first experimented with severing the corpus callosum in cats?

Myers and Sperry

Why did surgeons in the early $1960$s cut the corpus callosum in humans?

To control severe seizures

In a split-brain experiment, which side of the brain allows a patient to verbally identify a picture?

The left hemisphere (presented to the right visual field)

In split-brain experiments, how do patients identify what the right hemisphere saw?

By pointing with the left hand

What is the primary language hemisphere for nearly all right-handed individuals?

The left hemisphere

What is neural plasticity?

The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience by reorganizing or growing connections

When is neural plasticity most pronounced?

During infancy and early childhood

What does cultural neuroscience examine?

The links between neural and cultural forces

What brain difference is noted in literate versus illiterate people?

Literate people have more white matter in the brain

Which lobe is relatively larger in women compared to men?

The frontal lobe

Which areas are relatively larger in men compared to women?

The amygdala and parietal cortex

True or False: A brain difference between sexes necessarily produces a difference in behavior.

False

What protects the brain from toxic agents?

Glia

What regulates body temperature according to the brain structure table?

The hypothalamus

What structure is involved in the somatic nervous system?

Sensory and motor nerves for voluntary action

What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?

Blood vessels, glands, and internal organs

What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?

Processing physical sensations like pressure and touch

What results from an fMRI image of the parietal lobe?

Activation patterns showing where processing is occurring at a high rate

What is the term for the brain's "volume control"?

Neuromodulators

Which structure manages simple skills and classical conditioning?

The cerebellum