ch.9 cgd good

Language

a system of symbols used to communicate with others and ourselves and in thinking (big picture concept of communication system)

Phonology

the study of the sounds of a language including how phonemes are organized (think sound system of language like ch-a-t)

Phoneme

the smallest distinct sound in a language that can change meaning (like “b” vs “p” in bat vs pat)

Morphology

the study of how words are formed and structured from smaller units (focus on word building)

Morpheme

the smallest unit of meaning in a language such as prefixes, suffixes, or root words (like “-ed” meaning past tense)

Syntax

the rules of grammar that determine how words are arranged into sentences (sentence structure rules)

Semantics

the meaning of words and sentences in a language (vocabulary meaning)

Pragmatics

the use of language in social situations including tone and context (talking differently to a baby vs adult)

Broca's area

brain region in the left hemisphere responsible for speech production (damage leads to difficulty speaking)

Wernicke's area

brain region responsible for understanding and producing meaningful language (damage leads to nonsensical speech)

Behaviorism

theory that language development occurs through reinforcement and imitation of others (child repeats words and is rewarded)

Social cognitive theory

emphasizes learning language through observing and interacting with others (modeling speech from environment)

Nativism

theory that the brain is biologically programmed to learn language (language ability is innate)

Language acquisition device (LAD)

an inborn system in the brain that allows children to learn language rules (activated by hearing language)

Universal grammar

innate set of grammatical principles shared across all languages (basic structure humans are born with)

Overregularization

applying regular grammar rules to irregular words such as “goed” instead of “went” (common in young children)

Interactionism

theory that language develops through interaction between biological readiness and environment (both nature and nurture)

Statistical learning

learning language by detecting patterns and probabilities in speech input (tracking sound combinations)

Transitional probability

likelihood that one sound follows another in speech (used by infants to segment words)

Critical period for language learning

time frame in early life when language acquisition occurs most easily (harder after this window)

Prenatal language development

exposure to language begins before birth as fetus hears voices (newborns prefer mother’s language)

Preverbal perception

infants’ ability to distinguish sounds from all languages before narrowing to native language (universal listeners early)

Crying

earliest form of communication that becomes more purposeful over time (signals needs like hunger)

Cooing

soft vowel-like sounds infants make around 2 months (early vocal play)

Babbling

repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like “bababa” that precede real speech (practice for language)

Protoconversation

back-and-forth interaction between infant and caregiver like a conversation (turn-taking before words)

Joint attention

when child and adult focus on the same object while being aware of each other (important for word learning)

Gestures

nonverbal communication such as pointing that supports language development (helps connect words to objects)

Sign language (language development context)

use of symbolic hand movements that can support early communication (can accelerate language)

Child-directed speech

exaggerated, high-pitched speech adults use with children to aid learning (baby talk style)

SES and language development

socioeconomic status affects quantity and quality of language exposure children receive (impacts vocabulary)

Vocabulary spurt

rapid increase in word learning around age 2 (sudden expansion of vocabulary)

Constraints (word learning)

assumptions children use to limit possible meanings of new words (makes learning efficient)

Whole object bias

assumption that a new word refers to the entire object not just a part (labeling whole object)

Mutual exclusivity constraint

assumption that objects have only one name (rejects second label)

Taxonomic constraint

assumption that words refer to categories of similar objects (dog applies to all dogs)

Syntactic bootstrapping

using sentence structure to figure out word meanings (grammar gives clues)

Semantic bootstrapping

using known word meanings to learn grammar categories (nouns vs verbs)

Fast mapping

quickly learning a new word after limited exposure (often after one time hearing it)

Telegraphic speech

early sentence form using minimal words but correct order like “want juice” (no extra grammar)

Language development in early childhood

rapid growth in vocabulary and grammar with more complex sentences (adding morphemes)

Egocentric speech

difficulty considering another person’s perspective in conversation (talking without adjusting for listener)

Private speech

talking to oneself to guide thinking and behavior (self-regulation tool)

Language development in middle childhood

improved grammar, vocabulary, and logical communication skills (more structured speech)

Discourse skills

ability to organize and understand extended communication like stories (making sense of narratives)

Metalinguistic abilities

ability to think about and analyze language itself (understanding jokes, ambiguity)

Language of teenagers

use of slang, informal language, and sometimes profanity to reflect identity (peer group communication)

Emergent literacy

early skills that prepare children for reading and writing before formal schooling (foundation stage)

Dialogic reading

interactive reading where adult and child discuss the story (active engagement improves literacy)

PEER strategy

dialogic reading method including prompt, evaluate, expand, repeat (structured interaction technique)

Phonics approach

teaching reading by linking letters to sounds (decoding words)

Whole language approach

teaching reading using meaningful text and context rather than isolated sounds (focus on comprehension)

Fluent reading

ability to read smoothly, quickly, and with understanding (key for comprehension)

Literacy gap

differences in reading and writing skills across groups often linked to SES (educational inequality)

Writing skills

ability to express ideas through written language (develops over time)

Fine motor skills (writing context)

physical ability to control hand movements needed for writing (affects handwriting)

Invented spelling

early stage where children spell words based on how they sound (developmentally normal)

Compositional skills

ability to organize and express ideas clearly in writing (structure and coherence)

Electronic communication (writing influence)

digital communication influencing writing style and skills (texts, social media)

Bilingualism

ability to use two languages fluently (does not harm development)

Metalinguistic advantage (bilinguals)

enhanced ability to think about language due to knowing multiple languages (cognitive benefit)

Bilingual education

instruction designed for students learning more than one language (various program types)

Immersion programs

students are taught entirely in a second language (full exposure method)

ESL pull-out programs

students are taken out of regular class for English instruction (separate support)

Transitional bilingual education

begins in native language then shifts to English (gradual transition)

Developmental bilingual programs

supports long-term development of both languages (maintains bilingualism)

Two-way immersion programs

integrates native and non-native speakers to learn both languages together (dual language model)

Culture and bilingual identity

maintaining native language supports cultural identity (language tied to identity)

Communication disorders

impairments in the ability to understand or produce language (broad category)

Language disorder

difficulty understanding or using language appropriately (affects communication)

Speech sound disorder

difficulty producing speech sounds correctly (articulation issues)

Childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering)

disruption in speech flow such as repetitions or prolongations (fluency issue)

Social/pragmatic communication disorder

difficulty using language appropriately in social contexts (pragmatics issue)

Autism spectrum disorder (language context)

developmental disorder affecting communication and social interaction (language delays common)

Echolalia

repetition of words or phrases heard from others often seen in autism (imitation speech)

Dyslexia

language-based learning disorder that affects reading ability (difficulty decoding words)

Comprehension precedes production

children understand language before they are able to produce it themselves (receptive language develops before expressive language)

Changes in babbling

infants’ babbling becomes more complex and language-specific over time as they are exposed to their native language (shifts from universal sounds to native sounds)

Caregiver responsiveness

when caregivers respond to infants’ vocalizations it reinforces and encourages further language development (feedback loop strengthens speech)

Features of child-directed speech

includes higher pitch, slower tempo, exaggerated intonation, and simplified vocabulary to support language learning (distinct speech pattern for children)

SES differences in child-directed speech

children from higher SES environments typically receive more frequent and higher-quality language input than those from lower SES environments (affects vocabulary growth)

Avoid explicit grammar correction

directly correcting young children’s grammar is less effective than modeling correct language use (learning occurs through exposure not correction)

Adding morphemes in early childhood

children begin to add grammatical markers like plural “-s” and past tense “-ed” as language develops (increasing grammatical complexity)

Children’s humor stages

developmental progression of humor from simple laughter to understanding jokes and wordplay (reflects cognitive and language growth)

Direction of writing systems

different languages use different writing directions and symbol systems such as left-to-right alphabetic or character-based systems (cross-language literacy differences)

Effects of reading to young children

reading to children early supports vocabulary development, comprehension, and later literacy skills (foundation for academic success)

Prevalence of lack of literacy

a significant number of children struggle with reading proficiency, often influenced by SES and educational access (important educational issue)

Electronic communication effects on writing

frequent use of texting and digital communication can influence grammar, spelling, and writing style (can both help and hinder skills)

Importance of writing skills for workplace

strong writing skills are essential for effective communication and success in many careers (real-world application)

Private speech (self-regulation emphasis)

talking to oneself helps guide thinking and behavior and supports problem solving (internal control strategy)

Egocentric speech (perspective focus)

young children have difficulty adjusting their language to the listener’s perspective (limited audience awareness)

Fast mapping (precision)

ability to learn and retain a new word after only one or very few exposures (rapid word acquisition)

Interactionism (precision)

language develops through the interaction of biological readiness and social communication with others (social interaction drives learning)