Reasoning About the Design and Execution of Research (11)

Scientific Method

is a series of eight steps for the generation of new knowledge

Initial

the _______ steps of the scientific method (generate a testable question, gather data and resources, form a hypothesis) focus on generating a hypothesis

Intermediate

the _______ steps of the scientific method (collect new data, analyze the data, interpret the data and existing hypothesis) focus on testing that hypothesis

Final

the _______ steps of the scientific method (publish and verify results) relate to providing the results for further testing of the hypothesis

FINER Method

assesses the value of a research question on the basis of whether or not it is feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant

Independent; Dependent

during research, we manipulate __________ variables and observe changes in the __________ variable

Controls

are used to correct for any influences of an intervention that are not part of the model. These may be positive or negative

Positive Controls

ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected

Negative Controls

ensure that no change in the dependent variable occurs when none is expected

Basic Science Research

uses chemicals, cell cultures, or animal subjects and is experiment-based. This is often the best type for demonstrating causality because the experimenter has the highest degree of control over the experimental conditions. Error in this most often results from errors in measurement

Accuracy (Validity)

is the quality of approximating the true value

Precision (Reliability)

is the quality of being consistent in approximations

Human Subjects Reseach

is subjects to ethical constraints that are generally absent in basic science research. Experiments may still be performed, but casual conclusions are harder to determine because circumstances are harder to control. Error may be in the form of bias, confounding, or random error

Observational

much of human subjects research is this

Cohort Studies

record exposures throughout time and then assess the rate of a certain outcome

Cross-sectional Studies

assess both exposure and outcome at the same point in time

Case-control Studies

assess outcome status and then assess for exposure history

Hill’s Criteria

causality in observational studies is supported by this, which include temporality, strength, dose-response relationships, consistency, plausibility, consideration of alternative explanations, experiments, specificity, and coherence

Bias

is systematic and results from a problem during data collection

Selection Bias

in which the sample differs from the population, is most common in human subjects research

Detection Bias

arises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations

Hawthorne Effect

results from changes in behavior—by the subject, experimenter, or both—that occur as a result of the knowledge that the subject is being observed

Confounding

is an error in data analysis that results from a common connection of both the dependent and independent variables to a third variable

Beneficence, Nonmaleficence, Autonomy, Justice

medical ethics generally refers to the four principles of ___________, ___________, respect for patient __________, and __________

Respect for Persons

include autonomy, informed consent, and confidentiality

Justice

dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use

Beneficience

requires us to do the most good with the least harm

Equipoise

we cannot perform an intervention without _________ —a lack of knowledge about which arm fo the research study is better for the subject

Populations

are all of the individuals who share a set of characteristics

Parameters

population data

Samples

are a subset of population that are used to estimate population data

Statistics

sample data

Internal Validity

refers to the identification of causality in a study between the independent and dependent variables

External Validity

refers to the ability of a study to be generalized to the population that it desrcibes

Statistical Significance

refers to the low likelihood of the experimental findings being due to chance

Clinical Significance

refers to the usefulness or importance of experimental findings to patient care or patient outcomes