Psychology - Relationships --> Attraction

Biological theory for attraction

Parental Investment Theory:

Women are more selective compared to men when choosing their partners because they invest more time and calories into growing the child, and therefore want to ensure that the person whom they choose will be able to provide.

Evolution:

Humans have evolved to find certain characteristics desirable because they ensured the successful passing down of genes and survival for offspring. For example, women may find broad shoulders attractive because it means that the men are strong enough to protect the family, while men may find wide hips attractive because it means that the woman is more capable of bearing children.

Studies for biological theory on attraction

Buss (1989) and Clarke & Hatfield (1989)

Buss (1989)

A:

Investigate cross-cultural similarities and differences in mate preferences to test the evolutionary hypothesis.

P:

Meta-analysis of 37 different cultures and around 10,000 participants. Participants would be sent a questionnaire containing 4 sections:

1) Biographical data (age, sex, religion)

2) A Likert scale with the numbers 0 to 3 (0 = undesirable to 3 = extremely desirable) used to rank 18 traits

3) Questions asking them about marriage (desired age to get married, desired age of partner)

4) 72 traits, which they were then asked to rank in order of importance

The translations were written in English, back-translated into participants' native language, and translated into English again, with a third translator fixing any errors between them.

F: 36/37 cultures had women who preferred financially stable men.

Women preferred older males and males who were ambitious and industrious.

Men preferred women who were physically attractive, youthful and chaste.

C: Although the participants came from different cultures, they still found many similar traits attractive, suggesting that there are biological reasons as to why.

Buss (1989) evaluation

Strengths:

Large sample of both genders → Increases generalisable of the study

Disadvantages:

Use of self report data → Susceptible to self-enhancement

Lack of ecological validity → What we think we want and what we really go for might not be the same, so the results might not predict what happens in real life

Clarke and Hatfield (1989)

A: Test selectiveness between males and females when choosing a mate

P: The study took place at Florida State University, with 5 female confederates and 4 male confederates being placed at prominent locations. The sample included 48 males and 48 females. The confederates were instructed to go up to people they actually found attractive and would consider sleeping with. They were instructed to tell them beforehand, "I've watched you on campus and found you very attractive", and then they would then ask them 1 of 3 questions:

1) Would you go on a date with me tonight?

2) Would you come to my apartment tonight?

3) Would you come to bed with me tonight?

F: The number of women who said yes to (1) was around 50%, but that number quickly decreased for (2) and dropped to 0% for (3). However, while around 56% of men also said yes to (1), the number quickly increased for (2), and around 75% said yes to (3).

C: Women are shown to be more cautious and selective with their partners compared to men.

Clarke and Hatfield (1989) evaluation

Strengths:

High ecological validity as it is a field experiment

Disadvatage:

Other factors that drove women to say no → Social

(Some ethical issues as there was no informed consent for the people who were asked the question)

Cognitive theory for attraction

Similarity attraction hypothesis:

People tend to be attracted to those similar to them. This is because they likely then share the same opinions and thoughts, leading to decreased chances of conflict or rejection. This also provides self-validation when people agree with us. This is why couples tend to be of similar ages, religion, social status, ethnic backgrounds etc.

Equity theory:

Both partners must have equal costs and benefits in a relationship. If one partner is putting in more investment, they should have an equal return. It is seen as essential for maintaining a relationship

Study on the cognitive theory of attraction

Markey and Markey (2007), Clarke and Hatfield (1978)

Clarke and Hatfield (1978)

A:

Investigate whether the cause of extramarital affairs is due to an imbalance in equity

P:

Correlational study. Sample of 2000 couples living together from a magazine. Participants were asked about the traits of their partner (attractiveness, wealth, etc.) and about extramarital affairs (how many, with how many partners, etc.).

F:

Those who felt they were underbenefited in the relationship were more likely to cheat, with a larger number of partners. Those who felt they equally benefited were more likely to have a stable, long-term relationship. Those who either overbenefitted or underbenefitted were more likely to doubt the stability of their relationship in the long term.

C:

Equity is essential in maintaining a relationship. If a relationship is unbalanced, it should be fixed right away to avoid the relationship from ending or infedelity from occuring.

Evaluation for Clarke and Hatfield (1978)

Strengths:

Big sample - more representative

Disadvantage:

Unrepresentative sample as people reading magazines would not represent the entire population. Results may differ if another sampling method was used.

Self reported data which could have been distorted

Bidirectional ambiguity - Does imbalance lead to extramarital affairs or vice versa

Markey and Markey (2007)

A: Investigate the extent in which similarity affects how people choose their partner

P: Used a questionnaire to correlate findings from undergraduate psychology students. Students were told to write down all the traits they wished their dream partner would have. They were then told to write down all the characteristics they believed they had.

F: The study found that many traits students wanted their dream partners to have were also the same traits they used to describe themselves.

C: People tend to be attracted to those similar to them.

Markey and Markey (2007) evaluation

Disadvantage:

Lack of ecological validity → What we think we want and what we really go for might not be the same, so the results might not predict what happens in real life.

Sampling bias → Only consisted of young American undergraduate students so not generalisable

Sociocultural theory for attraction

Cultural dimensions:

There are 2 types of cultural dimensions: individualism and collectivism. Individualistic cultures tend to focus on independence and autonomy, while collectivist cultures focus on social harmony instead. Based on the culture one grows up in, it can then affect which traits are seen as desirable.

Mere exposure effect:

The more a person is exposed to someone, the more likely they are to be attracted to them. This is because people tend to develop a preference for things which are familiar to them.

Buss (1990)

A:

Investigate local and universal preferences in mates across different cultures

P:

Meta-analysis of 37 different cultures and around 10,000 participants. Participants would be sent a questionnaire containing 3 sections:

1) Biographical data (age, sex, religion)

2) A Likert scale with the numbers 0 to 3 (0 = undesirable to 3 = extremely desirable) used to rank 18 traits

3) Questions asking them about marriage (desired age to get married, desired age of partner)

The translations were written in English, back-translated into participants' native language, and translated into English again, with a third translator fixing any errors between them.

F:

Researchers found that overall responses were quite similar despite the different cultures.

African cultures placed a larger emphasis on religion and being a good housekeeper, and less emphasis on physical attractiveness and mutual attraction.

Asian cultures place a larger emphasis on chastity, health, and domestic skills compared to other cultures.

There were sex differences in every culture.

However, polygamist cultures had women who preferred men who were ambitious and industrious, or other signs of earning potential.

C: Culture may play a role in the traits that humans find attractive.

Buss (1990) evaluation

Strengths:

Disadvantages:

Moreland and Beach (1992)

A:

Investigate the mere exposure effect

P:

4 female confederates would attend a psychology lecture with 130 students who were the participants. They were randomly chosen to attend one of the following conditions:

1) 15 lectures

2) 10 lectures

3) 5 lectures

4) No lectures

They were instructed to act the following way: They would arrive early to the lecture, walk slowly down towards the front and sit in an area where they were easily visible. During the lecture, they would sit quietly and take notes. After the lecture, they were told to get up and leave. To maintain the mere exposure effect, the confederates were instructed not to speak to anyone at all. Towards the end of the semester, the professor would show the picture of the 4 women and would ask them if the women looked familiar and to rate their personality traits

F:

Male and female participants responded similarly. The women were not seen as similar to each other. They both assigned the women whom they saw more often with more positive traits.

C: The mere exposure effect can also be observed in naturalistic conditions

Moreland and Beach (1992) evaluation

Strengths:

Prevent researcher bias by randomly selecting which woman attended the number of sessions → Decrease researcher bias

Same procedure was followed every visit → High internal validity

Using ppts who were unaware in a real life, real time environment → High ecological validity

Disadvantages:

Evolutionary perspectives could've influenced the rating (e.g. someone who becomes familiar maybe prevents less of a threat = habitualised in our brain, or create ingroup of this person)

Natural experiment = Confounding variables could've affected it (e.g. highly rated confederate maybe conformed to beauty standards more, or look like a film star they were familiar with)

Why do relationships end?

Theory of the 4 horsemen

Equity theory

Communication in personal relationships

Theory of the 4 horsemen - Bad communication

Social penetration theory - Close communication

Gottenman's theory of communication

The theory of the 4 horsemen:

4 destructive communication styles which could lead to the end of a relationship

1) Stonewalling = Ignoring one's partner

2) Contempt = Acting superior

3) Denial = Refusing to take accountability for one's actions

4) Criticism = Criticising one's partner's character

Study for Gottenman's theory

Gottenman and Carrere (1999):

Gottenman and Carrere (1999):

A:

To investigate whether destructive communication styles could lead to the end of a relationship

P:

Longitudinal study, where couples would be observed for 3 years and followed up for 6 years. Sample included newlywed couples of less than 6 months. Couples were invited to take part in a discussion where they would talk about a current issue in their relationship that was the basis of their disagreements. Their issue would then be ranked by severity by a third researcher. In the next 2 sessions, they would recall the issue they previously talked about. A researcher would be present in the room to help guide them on this issue and bring up other potential problems that could also be the cause of their disagreements. The couple would then sit silently for 2 minutes, and then discuss their issues again for 15 minutes. Afterwards, they would watch a recording of their discussion, and be given a meter to rate both their own emotions and their partner's emotions during the discussion. A remote camera would be observing the couples facial expressions at the time, and coders would categorise them into 5 positive, 4 negative, and one neutral.

F:

Communication styles can be used to predict maintenance or breakdown of a relationship. There were no significant gender effects. Women would initiate discussions 80% of the time. Stable couples had a more positive emotional balance. Unstable couples had a more negative emotional balance.

C:

Communication styles are key for maintaining relationships

Gottenman and Carrere evaluation

Strengths:

Accurately portraying the state of their relationship because they were sitting in a room being observed

Looked at HOW participants interacted instead of just what they were saying → Allow for triangulation

Disadvantages:

Participants may act differently knowing that they're being watched → Lower internal validity

Heteronormative (only men and female partners + monogamous) → Not generalisable to every person

Self-penetration theory

Self-disclosure is the act of revealing personal information about oneself. Relationships are formed through this act of self-disclosure. Self-disclosure leads to self-validation, which is part of the cost-benefit analysis of relationships. If a person feels that while they are self-disclosing, they are being heard and validated, they would likely place more importance on the relationship. However, if they feel as if they are being ignored, they will then pull away.

There are 4 levels of self-disclosure:

1) Orientation stage = Surface-level topics, not vulnerable to each other

2) Exploratory stage = Some opinions and thoughts, but still not vulnerable to each other yet, still sticking to 'safer' topics

3) Affective stage = Feel like can be open and honest with each other

4) Stable stage = Complete trust in each other, and can talk about anything, and can also predict each other's emotions

Collins and Miller (1991)

A:

Investigate whether self-disclosure can lead to more liking and intimacy

P:

Meta-analysis of studies between 1955 and 1992, with the studies being isolated with the keyword self-disclosure and liking. Studies from academic journals were also used. Laboratory correlational studies which used self-reports were also used.

F: There was a positive correlation between self-disclosure and liking. This correlation was especially strong in the self-reported studies. People were also more likely to self-disclose to those they were closer to as well. Intimacy was also linked to liking.

C: Self-disclosure plays an important role in the maintenance of relationships and friendships.

Study for the self-penetration theory

Collins and Miller (1991)

Evaluation for Collins and Miller (1991)

Strengths:

Triangulation

Less prone to research bias

Disadvantages:

Lack of control over data

Lack of ecological validity