MANA 3318 Final Exam Review

Hawthorne Studies

Productivity increased because groups were paid attention to, not physical changes to the environment.

Managing Diversity

- Requires examination of employee's hidden assumptions

- Identify prejudice = an attitude

- To prevent discrimination = a behavior

Impression Management

Controlling how other perceive you

- Self-promotion

- Ingratiation (Trying to be liked)

- Exemplification (Above and beyond)

- Supplication (Gain sympathy)

- Intimidation

Big Five Personality Traits

Advocates breaking down behavior patterns into a series of observable traits

- Conscientiousness (dependable, organized)

- Agreeableness (cooperative, kind)

- Neuroticism (nervous, moody)

- Openness (curious, creative)

- Extraversion (sociable, talkative)

Social Perception

- Process of interpreting information about another person

- People will use their perception of reality, not reality itself, to decide how to behave

Barriers to Social Perception

Barriers prevent individuals from perceiving others accurately

- Selective perception

- Stereotyping

- First-impression error

- Projection

- Self-fulfilling prophecies

Attribution Theory - locus of control

Explains how individuals identify the causes and reactions behind behaviors

- Internal Locus: Outcomes are due to your own actions

(I got an A because I studied hard)

- External Locus: You believe outcomes are due to outside forces

(I failed because test was unfair)

Rule-based, Character, and Consequential Theories

Rule: Follows rules, laws, duties

Character: Being a good person, moral character

Consequential (Utilitarianism): Outcomes and results

ABC Model of Attitudes

A - Affective: Your emotions or feelings about something

B - Behavioral: How you act or behave toward something

C - Cognitive: Your thoughts, beliefs, or knowledge about something

Types of Organizational Commitment

Explains why employees stay with a company

- Affective (Emotional): Stay because you WANT to

- Continuance (Cost-based): Stay because you NEED to

-Normative (Obligation): Sense of loyalty/duty

Machiavellianism

Willing to do whatever it takes to get one's way.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X:

- People are not motivated to work

- Prefer to be led

- Employees must be controlled, directed, threatened to perform

Theory Y:

- People are motivated to work

- Prefer to be self-directed and will try to accomplish goals they believe in

- Employees are motivated by positive incentives.

Equity Theory

A theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Employees are motivated when their unsatisfied needs are met.

5) BOTTOM, FIRST: Physiological/Survival

4) Safety/Security

3) Social

2) Ego/Esteem

1) Self-actualization

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Job satisfaction influenced by motivators and hygiene factors.

Motivators: Need to grow. (Achievement, Recognition)

Hygiene: Need to avoid pain. (Salary, Working conditions)

McClelland Need Theory

Focused on personality and learned needs

- Achievement

- Power

- Affiliation

Goal-Setting Theory - SMART Goals

Motivation is fostered when employees are given specific and difficult goals.

- Specific

- Measurable

- Attainable

- Relevant

- Time Based

Pavlov Classical Conditioning Theory

A theory in the social behavioral perspective that sees behavior as the result of the association of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus: Naturally causes a response (food)

Unconditioned Response: Natural Reaction (salivating to food)

Conditioned Stimulus: originally neutral, later triggers response (bell)

Conditioned Response: Learned reaction (salivating to bell)

Operant Conditioning

Behavior is shaped by consequences - Rewards or Punishments

- Positive Reinforcement: Adding something good to increase behavior (Giving bonus for good performance)

- Negative Reinforcement: Removing something bad to increase behavior (Removing strict supervision once employee proves responsibility)

- Punishment: Adding something bad to decrease behavior (Write up for being late)

- Extinction: Removing rewards so behavior fades (Ignore attention-seeking behavior)

Reinforcement Theory

Theory that positive and negative reinforcers motivate a person to behave in certain ways

Social Learning Theory

Learning occurs when one observes others and models their behaviors.

Sources:

- Prior Experiences

- Behavior models

- Persuasion from other people

- Assessment of current physical and emotional capabilities

Stressor, Stress, Strain

Stressor/Demand: Person or event that triggers the stress response

- Cognitive appraisal

- Person-environment fit

- Psychoanalysis

Stress: Unconscious preparation to fight or flee

- Homeostatic or medical

Strain: Negative psychological, physical, behavioral, and organizational consequences that are a result of stressful events.

Eustress and Distress

Eustress:

- Good stress

- Challenge stressors

Distress:

- Bad stress

- Challenge Stressors

Burnout

A prolonged response to chronic stressors at work

Exhaustion: State of physical and emotional depletion from work

Cynicism/Depersonalization: A defensive attempt to put distance between oneself and work

Inefficacy: A decline in one's feelings of competence and successful achievement

Person-Environment Fit Approach

Stress occurs when confusing and conflicting expectations of a person in a social role creates stress for that person

- Role Conflict: Conflicting expectations that others have of us

- Role Ambiguity: Lack of information about what needs to be done in a role

- Role Overload: When the number of roles a person holds is so high that some of the roles are performed less effectively, or not at all

Lazarus Cognitive Appraisal Approach

Stress depends on how you interpret a situation, not just the situation itself.

Primary Appraisal: Is it a threat?

- Evaluate situation

Secondary Appraisal: Can I handle it?

- Assess your ability to cope

Coping Strategies

Problem-Focused:

- Targets the cause of stress

- Try to fix or change situation

Emotion-Focused:

- Targets your emotional response

- Try to feel better about situation

Nonverbal Communication

Proxemics: Perception and use of space

Kinesics: Body movement and posture

Facial and Eye Behavior: Used to communicate an emotional state, reveal behavioral intentions, and cue the receiver

Paralanguage: Variations in speech that communicate messages

- Tone

- Pitch

- Volume

Punctuated Equilibrium Model (Connie Gersick)

How groups develop and make progress over time, especially when working under deadlines

1) FIRST MEETING (Direction Setting)

- The group forms and sets initial goals and roles

- Often not very productive yet

2) INERTIA PHASE (Little Progress)

- Group works slowly or inefficiently

- Members stick to early ideas even if not great

3) MIDPOINT TRANSITION (Turning Point)

- Happens around halfway point to deadline

- Time is limited, shift in strategy

4) SECOND PHASE (Rapid Progress)

- After the shift, work becomes more focused and productive

5) FINAL PUSH

- Intense effort right before deadline to finish project

Tuckman's Five Stage Model

FORMING:

- Polite stage

- Unclear Purpose

- Guidance and Direction

STORMING:

- Conflict

- Increase clarity of purpose

- Power struggles

NORMING:

- Agreement and consensus

- Clear roles and responsibilities

- Facilitation

PERFORMING:

- Focus on goals and achievement

- Clear purpose and vision

- Delegation

ADJOURNING:

- Task completion

- Good feeling about achievements

- Recognition

Conformity with the Norm

Group/Team standards are used to evaluate members' behaviors

Behaviors of conformity with the norm with 2 mechanisms:

- Members with differing opinions feel extensive pressure to align with others to match the group standards

- Members avoid being visibly different because of their desire to be accepted by the group

Group Polarization, GroupThink, Group Cohesion

GROUP POLARIZATION:

When group discussion leads members to take more extreme positions than they originally held

- People hear supporting opinions

- Desire to fit in pushes stronger views

GROUPTHINK: When the desire for harmony an agreement overrides realistic decision-making

- A team agrees on a bad decision because no one wants to speak up

GROUP COHESION: The strength of relationships and unity within a group

- A close-knit team that works well together

- Can increase risk of GroupThink

Social Loafing

Failure of a member to contribute personal time, effort, thoughts, or other resources

Prevention:

- Set group goals

- Peer Evaluations

- Distribute rewards based on contributions

Risk Averse

Choosing options with fewer risks and less uncertainty

Escalation of Commitment

Tendency to continue to support a failing course of action

- People keep committing time, money, effort to something just because they invested so much

Intuition, Rational, Bounded Rational Models

INTUITION MODEL:

- Decisions based on gut feelings, instincts, and experience

- Used when time is limited

- Used when you have experience in the area

RATIONAL MODEL:

- Assumes people make logical, step-by-step decisions

- Maximize best outcome

(STEPS)

1) Identify the problem

2) Gather information

3) Evaluate all alternatives

4) Choose the best option

BOUNDED RATIONALITY MODEL:

- To satisfice by selecting the first alternative that is sufficient

- More realistic version of Rationality Model

- Find solution that is "Good Enough"

Systems 1 & 2

System 1 (Fast Thinking):

- Automatic, Quick, Instinctive

- Requires little effort

System 2 (Slow Thinking):

- Deliberate, Logical, and Effortful

- Requires Concentration

Formal & Informal Powers

FORMAL/POSITIONAL:

- Based on one's position in the organization

- Authority: Right to influence another person

INFORMAL/PERSONAL:

- Based on the unique characteristics of the individual

- Influence: Process of affecting the thoughts, behaviors, and feelings of another person

French & Raven's 5 Forms of Interpersonal Powers

The difference ways people can influence others.

FORMAL:

1) Legitimate Power:

- Comes from a formal position or role

- People comply because they recognize authority

2) Reward Power:

- Based on the ability to give rewards

3) Coercive Power:

- Based on the ability to punish

INFORMAL:

4) Referent Power:

- Based on likability and respect

5) Expert Power:

- Comes from knowledge or skills

Cialdini's 6 Principles of Social Influence

1) Friendship/Liking:

- People prefer to say yes to those they like

2) Reciprocity Norm:

- Return favors; Say yes to people you owe

3) Social Validation:

- Follow the majority

4) Commitment and Consistency:

- Align with prior commitment

5) Authority:

- Follow the lead of credible, knowledgeable experts

6) Scarcity: People want more of what they can have less of; "Last One in Stock"

8 Influence Tactics

1) Pressure

2) Upward Appeals (Appeal to Superior)

3) Exchange

4) Coalition (Army of Supporters)

5) Ingratiation (Good Mood, Favorable)

7) Inspirational Appeals (Appeal to the Person)

8) Consultation (Participation)

Leadership vs Management

LEADERSHIP:

- Setting a direction for organization

- Aligning people with that direction

- Motivating people to action

- *Inspiring organizational members*

- *Leaders have people follow them*

MANAGEMENT:

- Planning and budgeting

- Organizing and staffing

- Controlling and problem solving

- *Overseeing day-to-day operations*

- *Managers have people who work for them*

3 Decision-Making Leadership Styles

AUTOCRATIC STYLE:

- Uses strong directive actions to control the rules, activities, and relationships at work

(High Leader Control)

DEMOCRATIC STYLE:

- Uses interaction and collaboration with followers to direct the work

(High Follower Control)

LAISSEZ-FAIRE STYLE:

- Uses a hands-off approach, leaving followers alone and avoiding getting involved

(Too High Follower Control)

Think helicopter/strict parenting + super chill parenting

Authentic, Transformational, Charismatic Leadership

AUTHENTIC:

- Conscious sense of values

- Act consistently to their value systems

- Build a workforce characterized by high levels of hope, optimism, and self-efficacy

TRANSFORMATIONAL:

- Inspires followers through their vision for change

- Open to followers' co-creation in a common vision

CHARISMATIC:

- Uses the force of personal abilities, charm, and talents to affect followers

- Greater reliance on the leader (need for control) and obedience from followers

Levels of Conflict

Intrapersonal:

- Disagreement within ONE PERSON

Intragroup:

- Disagreement within ONE GROUP

Intergroup:

- Disagreement amongst MULTIPLE GROUPS

Interorganizational:

- Disagreement amongst MULTIPLE ORGANIZATIONS

3 Types of Intrapersonal Conflict

Intra-Role Conflict:

- Disagreement within ONE ROLE

Inter-Role Conflict:

- Disagreement amongst MULTIPLE ROLES

Person-Role Conflict:

- Disagreement between PERSONAL VALUES and EXPECTED BEHAVIORS

5 Styles of Conflict Management

COMPETITION:

- High Assertiveness, Low Cooperativeness

- Prioritize your own goals

COLLABORATION:

- High Assertiveness, High Cooperativeness

- Win-win solution goals

COMPROMISE:

- Moderate Assertiveness & Cooperativeness

- Both sides give up something

ACCOMMODATION:

- Low Assertiveness, High Cooperativeness

- You give in to the other person

AVOIDANCE:

- Low Assertiveness, Low Cooperativeness

- Ignore or delay the conflict

Types of Artifacts

Visible, observable elements of a company's culture - The things you can see, hear, or feel

1) Symbols:

- Nike swoosh logo

2) Rituals:

- Daily cheer before opening

3) Stories:

- Legends and myths

4) Personal Enactment:

- CEO sends a happy hour invite

5) Physical Structures:

- Open space layout

6) Language:

- Common jargon/abbreviations

7) Ceremonies & 6 Rites:

- Awards banquet

Espoused and Enacted Values

ESPOUSED:

- What a company says

- Core values on a company website

ENACTED:

- What a company does

- Demonstrated Actions

Traditional vs Contemporary Career Paths

TRADITIONAL:

- "Career Ladder"

- Driven by the organization

- Mutual loyalty contract (Job Security in exchange for Compliance

- Top-down firm

- Vertical Distribution

(org > project)

CONTEMPORARY:

- Driven by the person

- Discrete exchange (Employee gains work experience, Organization gains productivity)

- Occupational Excellence (Build skills for future)

- Organizational Empowerment (Independence of units as unique markers

- Horizontal Distribution

(project > org)

Levinson's Career Stage Model

Explains how people's careers and lives develop in stages over time, with different priorities at each phase.

1) ESTABLISHMENT:

- learning the job, begin to fit into an organization and occupation

2) ADVANCEMENT:

- high achievement-oriented, focus on increasing competence

3) MAINTENANCE:

- maintain productivity, evaluate progress towards goals

4) WITHDRAWAL:

- contemplating retirement or change