AQA A-Level Psychology - Research Methods

What are 4 characteristics of experimental methods?

• Is a scientific method involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.

• Participants are randomly allocated, without bias, to testing groups so that groups should be similar.

• All procedures in an experiment should be standardised for all participants.

• A researcher would manipulate an independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable

What is an aim?

• A general statement about the purpose of the study

• An aim comes from an initial theory​

• Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of an investigation 

• If several conditions are being compared, both should be referenced

• Should refer to IV and DV

• To investigate whether there is a difference…

What do experimenters consider once an aim has been considered?

Once an aim has been established, experimenters consider what variables they are investigating and hypothesise (predict) how they relate to each other. 

What is a hypothesis?

• A precise testable statement that states the relationship between variables

• Non-directional (two-tailed)

• Directional (one-tailed)

What is the format of a directional hypothesis?

“Participants in condition A will… [predicted direction of result]…compared to participants in condition B.”

What words are used in a directional hypothesis?

• MORE/LESS/FEWER

• LARGER/SMALLER

• HIGHER/LOWER

• FASTER/SLOWER

What is a two-tailed hypothesis?

The hypothesis does not specify the expected direction of the results, just that there will be a change, difference, or effect.  These are likely to be used when there is little previous research (or findings are contradictory).

What is the format of a non-directional hypothesis?

“There will be a difference in…[DV]… between participants in condition A compared to participants in condition B.”

How do you decide what type of hypothesis to use?

• Psychologists tend to use a directional hypothesis when the findings of previous research suggest a particular outcome

• If there is no previous research or secure findings we will use a non-directional hypothesis

• We will opt for a directional as there is lots of research into caffeine and how it impacts our behaviour

How do you operationalise variables of a hypothesis?

• Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

• Operationalising is the process of defining the variables precisely.  For the IV, this means we know precisely how it was manipulated; for the DV, this means stating precisely how it will be measured.

What are extraneous variables?

A variable (other than the IV) that may affect the DV if it is not controlled. EVs are “nuisance variables” that make it difficult to detect if the IV has had an effect.

What are the 4 types of extraneous variables?

• Situational variables.

• Participant variables.

• Experiment/ investigator effects.

• Demand characteristics.

What are situational variables?

Aspects of the environment (room/place) that may affect the results.

What are participant variables?

Things about the participant (mood, concentration, hunger) that may affect the results.

What are experimenter/ investigator effects?

Things the experimenter does (consciously or unconsciously) which may affect the results. For example, being nice to some participants and not others. Wearing brighter clothes and being happier one day than on another. Expectancy effects and unconscious cues. Researcher's selection of ppts, materials, instructions. Leading questions –power of investigator effects.

What are demand characteristics?

Any cue from the research situation or researcher that may reveal the aim of the study, leading to participants changing their behaviour. These could have an impact on the results. Participant reactivity; tendency to react to cues from environment or researcher.

What is standardisation?

Ensure participants experience the same conditions/situation/environment.

How does standardisation occur?

Holding these factors constant & including these details in the standardised procedures/ instructions for all experimenters to follow. Standardised instructions are read to participants. e.g standardized procedures = in a memory study, words in each condition should be matched and have the same level of difficulty/syllables/type of word etc.

Why does standardisation occur?

This will reduce the effect of such variables, as there will be minimal variation in these factors across conditions.

What is randomisation?

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.

How does randomisation occur?

Put all words/ppt names into a “hat”. Draw words/ppt names from hat; first group of words/ppt names drawn are in condition A, next group condition B.

Why does randomisation occur?

Reduces investigator effects e.g., one word list is not easier/harder or one group of ppts is not better/worse as the researcher has no control over which word/ppt goes where. Can randomize the order of words if just one list or the order of the ppt’s conditions if multiple.

How can investigator effects be controlled?

By using double-blind procedures, where the participants and person collecting the data are not informed as to which condition each ppt has been placed in.

How can demand characteristics be controlled?

By using single-blind procedures, where the participants are not informed as to which condition each ppt has been placed in.

What is random allocation?

Attempts to control ppt variables in an independent groups design - ensures that each ppt has the same chance of being in one condition, so evenly distributes ppt characteristics across conditions.

What is counterbalancing?

An attempt to control for order effects (leading to issues of demand characteristics, ppt variables, etc) in a repeated measures design: half the ppts do the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.

What is confounding variable?

• A type of extraneous variable.

• Where a variable (e.g. EV) can’t be controlled it is called a confounding variable and can confuse results by also affecting the DV.

• Basically unwanted Independent variables (IV’s)

What is the mnemonic for ethical guidelines?

Can Do Can’t Do With Participants.

What are the 5 ethical guidelines?

• Consent.

• Deception.

• Confidentiality.

• Debriefing.

• Withdrawal.

• Protection from harm.

What is consent?

Involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights. One of those is the right to withdraw at any time during the investigation.

How can consent be acquired?

• Consent form – given before study; detailing all info that might affect decision to take part (kids under 16 – adult)

• Prior general consent – ppts consent & agree to lots of studies including deception, but not informed of true aims

• Presumptive consent – a group of people who are like ppts are asked whether they would agree to take part in the study.  If yes – we presume this would be the case for the real ppts

• Retrospective consent:  Ppts consent during debrief, having already taken part.

How does debrief happen?

Once the investigation is finished, ppts should be told:

• Information regarding the true aims,

• experimental procedures/groups,

• what their data will be used for

• reminder of their right to withdraw

What is confidentiality?

Privacy refers to one’s rights to control information about themselves. We have the right to privacy – if this is invaded, confidentiality/anonymity should be respected. Under the data protection act, confidentiality is the right to have personal data protected.

How does confidentiality happen?

• Participants should keep all collected data anonymous (usually by coding it)

• In a case study, the researcher should use the initials, of participants or number or an alias 

What is deception?

Deliberately misleading (false info) or withholding information (omission) from ppts at any stage of the study. Either of these means the ppt has not given full informed consent

How does deception not happen?

Once the investigation is finished, ppts should be told:

• information regarding the true aims,

• experimental procedures/groups,

• what their data will be used for

• reminder of their right to withdraw

These are especially important if retrospective consent was a feature of the study.

What is withdrawal?

All ppts should know that they can withdraw from a study at any time and told HOW to. They should not feel pressure to continue participation and they should know their data will be removed too.

How does withdrawal happen?

• Brief ppts at the start about their right to withdraw and also remind them during the investigation

• In the debrief at the end again remind them of the right to withdraw their data if they wish

What are observations?

• A Non-experimental method (NO independent variable)

• Reveals what individuals DO (without having to ASK them using self-report methods).

• Often used WITHIN an experiment to assess the DV.

What are strengths of observations?

• Capture OBSERVABLE behaviour (in a more suitable way than in an experiment)

• Give the researcher flexibility to study more COMPLEX INTERACTIONS

What are limitations of observations?

• Observer bias: interpretation of the situation affected by expectations (REDUCE this using more observers!)

• Cannot demonstrate causal relationships but can be used in experiments to help detect C-E links

What are naturalistic observations?

• Studying the target behaviour in the setting it would naturally/USUALLY occur (office, park, etc.).

• All aspects of the environment are free to vary.

What is a strength of naturalistic observations?

• High external validity as it is generalizable to everyday life. Behaviour in usual environment

What are limitations of naturalistic observations?

• Lack of control over environment makes replication difficult

• Lack of control over CV/EV’s lead to low internal validity (difficult to judge patterns of behaviour)

What are controlled observations?

• Sometimes useful to control certain aspects. E.g. Strange Situation (playroom environment – 2-way mirror to not disturb action).

• Some control over variables, including manipulating variables to observe effects and control CV/EV’s.

What is a strength of a controlled observation?

High internal validity: EV’s controlled. So replication possible and greater inference for cause and effect

What is a limitation of a controlled observation?

Low external validity: cannot readily be applied to everyday life (except if covert)

What is a covert observation?

• Participants are unaware their behaviour is studied (under COVER)

• Behaviour recorded without prior consent and observer is hidden from view.

• Has to be public and happening anyway for ethical reasons (e.g. on the bus/across the room)

What is a strength of a covert observation?

Low demand characteristics as behaviour is natural. This increases the internal validity.

What is a limitation of a covert observation?

Ethically questionable; Right to PRIVACY. Even in public – some ppl do not want to share how much they are spending on shopping!

What is an overt observation?

Participants KNOW they are being observed and given informed consent beforehand. The observer is clearly visible.

What is a strength of an overt observation?

More ethically acceptable than covert.

What is a limitation of an overt observation?

Increased risk of demand characteristics (EV) than covert due to knowledge of observers. So decreases internal validity

What is a participant observation?

Observer becomes part of the group (integrates) – produces a first-hand account

What is a strength of a participant observation?

Increased external validity as a better understanding of the lives of those studied

What is a limitation of a participant observation?

Lose objectivity by identifying too closely with group: “going native” when the line becomes blurred…

What is a non-participant observation?

• Remain an outsider/separate from those being studied to record in a more objective way.

• It may be impractical or even impossible to join groups (P.O) so this is the only option. Eg 40yr old female  researcher observing yr10 boys.

What is a strength of a non-participant observation?

• More objectivity due to psychological distance (increased internal validity)

What is a limitation of a non-participant observation?

• Less insight as too far removed

What is an unstructured observation?

Write down everything seen. Usually only for small samples.

What is a strength of an unstructured observation?

Rich in detail/ depth.

What is a limitation of an unstructured observation?

• May just be eye-catching info.

• Qualitative data harder to analyse.

• Observer bias due to lack of objective categories.