Psychology: Learning, Behavior, and Social Psychology Key Terms

Operant Conditioning

Learning where behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. Example: A dog sits more often because it gets treats. Non-example: Learning by association between two stimuli (classical conditioning).

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated. Example: Studying more because it led to a good grade. Non-example: Behavior changing due to sudden insight.

Operant Chamber

A controlled box used to study animal behavior and reinforcement. Example: A Skinner box with a lever that gives food. Non-example: Observing behavior in the wild.

Reinforcement

Anything that increases the likelihood a behavior will happen again. Example: Getting praise for answering a question. Non-example: Punishment that decreases behavior.

Shaping

Reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior. Example: Rewarding a rat for gradually pressing a lever. Non-example: Rewarding only the final behavior immediately.

Discriminative Stimulus

A signal that a behavior will be reinforced if performed. Example: A green light meaning pressing a button gives food. Non-example: A stimulus that automatically triggers a reflex.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding something desirable to increase behavior. Example: Giving candy for good behavior. Non-example: Taking something away to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior. Example: Buckling a seatbelt to stop the beeping. Non-example: Adding a reward like money.

Primary Reinforcers

Rewards that satisfy basic biological needs. Example: Food, water, sleep. Non-example: Money, which must be learned.

Conditioned Reinforcers

Rewards that gain value through learning. Example: Money or grades. Non-example: Food or water.

Reinforcement Schedules

Patterns that determine how often reinforcement is given. Example: Being paid weekly or per task. Non-example: A single reward given once.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing every correct response. Example: Getting paid every time you complete a task. Non-example: Being rewarded only sometimes.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior only some of the time. Example: Winning occasionally at a slot machine. Non-example: Getting rewarded every single time.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses. Example: A free coffee after every 10 purchases. Non-example: Reinforcement based on time.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Example: Gambling on slot machines. Non-example: Rewards given at fixed times.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. Example: A paycheck every two weeks. Non-example: Rewards based on number of responses.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after varying amounts of time. Example: Checking your phone for random notifications. Non-example: Rewards on a strict time schedule.

Punishment

Anything that decreases the likelihood a behavior will occur again. Example: Getting detention for being late. Non-example: Reinforcement that increases behavior.

Cognitive Map

A mental picture of the layout of an area that helps you navigate. Example: Knowing how to get to the cafeteria from any hallway. Non-example: Following GPS directions step by step.

Latent Learning

Learning that happens without reinforcement and is shown only when needed. Example: Knowing where classrooms are without trying to memorize them. Non-example: Studying to get a good grade.

Insight

A sudden realization of a solution without trial-and-error. Example: Suddenly understanding a math problem. Non-example: Slowly improving through practice.

Intrinsic Motivation

Wanting to do something because you enjoy it. Example: Drawing because you like art. Non-example: Drawing to earn a prize.

Extrinsic Motivation

Doing something to earn a reward or avoid punishment. Example: Doing homework to avoid detention. Non-example: Doing homework because you enjoy learning.

Cope

To deal with stress in a way that reduces emotional strain. Example: Talking to a friend after a bad day. Non-example: Ignoring the problem completely.

Problem-Focused Coping

Reducing stress by fixing the actual problem. Example: Making a study schedule. Non-example: Crying to feel better without solving anything.

Emotion-Focused Coping

Reducing stress by managing emotions instead of the problem. Example: Listening to music to calm down. Non-example: Retaking a test to fix the grade.

Learned Helplessness

Giving up because repeated failures make you believe nothing will change. Example: A student stops trying in math. Non-example: Trying harder after failing.

External Locus of Control

Believing outcomes are controlled by luck or other people. Example: Blaming a bad grade on the teacher. Non-example: Believing studying caused the grade.

Internal Locus of Control

Believing outcomes depend on your own actions. Example: Studying more after a bad test. Non-example: Saying nothing you do matters.

Self-Control

The ability to delay gratification and control impulses. Example: Studying instead of going on your phone. Non-example: Acting on impulse.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others. Example: Learning how to solve a problem by watching the teacher. Non-example: Learning through trial and error.

Modeling

Copying behavior after observing someone else. Example: A child copying a parent's behavior. Non-example: Learning information without copying actions.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when you act and when you watch someone else act. Example: Feeling nervous watching someone give a speech. Non-example: Memorizing facts from a book.

Prosocial

Behaviors intended to help others. Example: Helping a classmate. Non-example: Bullying.

Antisocial

Behaviors that harm or ignore others. Example: Vandalism or bullying. Non-example: Helping someone.