Carbon combined

Why are fossil fuels considered ‘non-renewable’?

Because they take millions of years to form but burning them takes only a few seconds

What has disrupted the focus of governments away from the climate crisis?

• Covid-19 pandemic and the 2008 financial crisis

• Energy security issues caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine

What was The Paris Agreement?

A legally binding treaty adopted in 2015 aiming to limit global warning to well below 2^oC above pre-industrial levels. Developed countries are committed to providing financial assistance to help developing nations with climate mitigation and adaptation

What was COP28?

28th Annual Conference of the Parties, where 125 countries signed onto the UAE Climate and Health Declaration, and finance providers mobilised an initial tranche of USD 1 billion for climate and health solutions

Why is abandoning fossil fuels problematic in some countries?

India, for example, depends on coal for 70% of its energy needs, and since signing The Paris Agreement has continued to increase coal production. It is also the third largest emitter of CO₂ after China and the US, and it wants to reduce its dependence on imported fuel.

What has caused the decrease in the US’s CO₂ emissions?

The shift from the burning of coal to fracking

What are stores of carbon also referred to as?

Pools, stocks and reservoirs

What are the three types of carbon store?

Terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric

What is flux?

The movement or transfer of carbon between stores. It creates cycles and feedbacks

What is the ‘slow carbon cycle’?

The geological carbon cycle, which is slow and involves a number of chemical reactions that create new stores which trap carbon for significant periods of time.

What is terrestrial carbon?

Carbon held within the mantle, which is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide when volcanoes erupt in a process called ‘out-gassing’

What happens when CO₂ in the atmosphere combines with rainfall?

It produces a weak carbonic acid that dissolves carbon-rich rocks, releasing bicarbonates

How do rivers contribute to the carbon cycle?

They transport weathered carbon and calcium sediments to the oceans, where they are deposited

What builds up strata of coal, chalk and limestone?

Carbon in organic matter from plants and from shells and skeletons sinks to the ocean bed when they die, which builds up over time

How does the subduction of carbon-rich rocks contribute to the carbon cycle?

The carbon eventually emerges again as CO₂ when the volcano erupts

How does the metamorphosis of rocks contribute to the carbon cycle?

The presence of intense heating along subduction plate boundaries metamorphoses the sedimentary rocks, releasing CO₂

What are the roles of living organisms in maintaining the efficient running of the bio-geochemical carbon cycle?

• photosynthesis

• respiration

• decomposition

• combustion

How much carbon is estimated to have been added to the atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels?

180 gigatonnes (Gt), which is enough to alter the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and trigger climate change

What are the three forms of carbon?

• inorganic

• organic

• gaseous

What is the quickest carbon cycle process?

Plants taking carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, and then releasing it by respiration. It is controlled by temperature and moisture

What is the slowest carbon cycle?

Dead organic material in soils may retain carbon for years or centuries. Some may not decay at all and transform into sedimentary rocks.

How can CO₂ fluxes vary globally?

Latitude, with levels always higher in the Northern Hemisphere, as it contains greater landmasses and has greater temperature variations

What is the biological carbon pump?

An exchange of CO₂, where some dissolves into the water and some is vented out to the air above

What is the carbonate pump?

Phytoplankton contain chlorophyll and sequester CO₂ through photosynthesis. They have shells, creating calcium carbonate that accumulates as sediment when they die

What would happen to the atmosphere without the contributions of phytoplankton?

The CO₂ concentrations in the atmosphere would be far higher than it already is

How does thermohaline circulation work?

Cold saline water is denser and heavier and sinks. This draws warmer water in from the ocean surface above and therefore across from the tropics. This means that the water below draws up to be warmed again

What were scientists’ hypothesis for the stalling of the Gulf Stream in 2004?

Melting ice was increasing the volume of freshwater entering the Atlantic, causing the salinity of the ocean to decline and thus cold water sinking. This meant that the cycle stopped as there was nowhere for the warm water to go

How much carbon is stored in terrestrial stores?

15.12 billion hectares, and 2477 gigatonnes

What are biological decomposers?

Organisms such as worms and bacteria, which feed on dead plants, animals and waste

What is carbon fixation?

A process that turns gaseous carbon into living organic compounds that grow

What do Mangrove soils consist of?

Thick organic layers of litter, humus and peat, which contain high levels of carbon (over 10%)

What are the impacts on the biological carbon cycle if mangroves are drained or cleared?

Carbon is released back into the atmosphere, as it is no longer stored in the mangroves

Why are tropical rainforests fragile carbon stores?

Soils are relatively thin and lacking in nutrients because litter layers that cover them decompose rapidly and the nutrients released are rapidly consumed by vegetation

What are greenhouse gases?

Substances that absorb and reflect back some of the radiated heat from the Earth’s surface. They include nitrous oxide, halocarbons, ozone and water vapour

What is the most common greenhouse gas?

CO₂, which makes up 89% of greenhouse gases produced. It is produced from burning fossil fuels, deforestation and has seen a 30% increase since 1850

What are the sources of methane gas?

Gas pipeline leaks, rice farming and cattle farming

What determines the variation of solar energy reaching the Earth’s surface?

The angle of the suns rays, which makes it intense at the equator and dispersed over a wider area at the poles

How are polar deserts formed?

Precipitation reduces closer to the poles because the air cools and becomes dense and dry

Why is little CO₂ absorbed in deserts as opposed to tropical rainforests?

Desert climates result in sparse vegetation, which does not absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis, in comparison to the warmer and wetter climate of tropical rainforests

What are some of the characteristics of healthy soils?

• Contain many microorganisms

• Dark, crumbly and porous

• Contain more carbon or organic matter

What creates the equilibrium in the global carbon cycle?

The amount of carbon in the sources and the sinks being equal

What are the projected changes to European annual mean temperatures as a result of climate change?

The largest increases are expected to be over Eastern and Northern Europe in winter, and over Southern Europe in summer

What has been one of the impacts on the Arctic from climate change?

Shrubs and trees that were previously unable to survive in the tundra have now started to establish themselves, as well as the red fox, which now competes with the Arctic fox for food and territory

What are the implications for the hydrological cycle from climate change?

• precipitation in the form of snow could diminish

• river discharge patterns may change

What factors does the amount of energy consumed depend on?

Lifestyle, climate, technology, availability and need

How is energy consumption expressed?

Tonnes of oil equivalent per capita

How much of the world’s population lives in cities?

Over 50%

How much of the world’s energy do cities consume?

How much of the world’s greenhouse gases produced are done so by cities?

How many tonnes of CO₂ was emitted by London in 2020?

7.86 tonnes of CO₂ equivalent per capita

How many tonnes of CO₂ was emitted by Botswana in 2020?

4.7 tonnes of CO₂ equivalent per capita

What has caused fuel poverty in the UK?

UK households are susceptible to global price hikes in gas, as occurred following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022. This means that many households, after paying for energy, has an income less than 60% of the median UK household income.

What is the energy pathway?

The flow of energy between a producer and a consumer, and how it reaches the consumer

What is OPEC?

A permanent IGO consisting of countries where oil is their main export. Between them, they control 80% of proven world oil reserves, but only 30% of production

What is OPEC’s role?

To coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its members, to ensure the stabilisation of oil markets in order to secure a regular supply to consumers, a steady income for producers and a fair return for those investing in the industry

Give an example of previous events/actions that changed oil prices.

During 2012-2016, the US produced oil from fracking which increased supplies and reduced prices.

In 2022 the Russian invasion of Ukraine heavily increased prices due to the threat to supplies

What is the role of national governments in energy security?

To meet international obligations, ensure energy security for the country’s present and future, support economic growth and regulate the role of private companies

What is the role of consumers in energy security?

To create demand. Purchasing choices are based on cost, as well as awareness of environmental issues

When was most of the coal in Western Europe and North America formed?

During the Carboniferous period, which was between 300 and 360 million years ago

When did oil and natural gas reserves form?

During the Mesozoic era, which was between 250 and 260 million years ago

What are chokepoints in global trade flows and shipping routes?

Narrow sea channels or convergences where transport routes can be disrupted. An example of this is the Suez Canal

What can cause disruption to energy pathways?

Piracy, natural hazards and political conflict

How many acts of piracy were reported between 2018 and 2022?

900

What impact did the Russo-Ukraine war have on energy pathways in 2022?

There were reduced flows of gas along Nord Stream 1 and alleged sabotage of Nord Stream 2. which cut supplies to Europe

Which superpowers and their allies has the ongoing Syrian conflict involved?

• Russia and its Shia non-fundamentalist allies

• the USA and its fundamentalist Sunni allies

What is a a suspected reason of the USA and Russia fighting for control over Syrian territory?

The proposed construction of oil and gas pipelines through Syria to supply fuel into Europe. This is a proxy war

What is Russia’s interest in the Syrian conflict?

Iran (Russia’s ally) wants a share of the European market, and having Iran onside gives Russia control over European energy, whilst strengthening a non-fundamentalist bloc between Asia and the Middle East

What is the USA’s interest in the Syrian conflict?

Qatar and Saudi Arabia, US allies, also seek to become Europe’s main suppliers of gas and oil respectively, which would also need to be pipelined through Syria.

What are four unconventional fossil fuels?

Deep water oil, tar sands, shale gas, and oil shale

What is deep water oil?

Oil reserves found in deeper ocean waters, which bring greater risks and costs. An example of this is the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil’s offshore reserves

What are tar sands?

Naturally occurring mixtures of sand, clay, water and a dense viscous form of petroleum called bitumen

What is shale gas?

Natural gas trapped in fractures and pores of sandstones and shales, or methane in coal seams

What is oil shale?

Deposits of organic compounds called kerogen in sedimentary rocks that have not undergone sufficient pressure, heat or time to become conventional oil.

Where are the three major deposits of tar sands in Alberta?

Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River, which together cover an area larger than England

How are tar sands extracted?

Tar sands are extracted by opencast mining. The extracted material is crushed and mixed with water, and the bitumen is separated before it can be used. Tar sands can also be pumped out, using high pressure steam which is injected underground to separate the bitumen from the sand

Who are the key players in the extraction of tar sands?

Governments, oil companies, environmental pressure groups, and local communities

What are the interests of governments in the extraction of tar sands?

Alberta’s regional government and the national government promote tar sands for energy security and economic development

What are the interests of oil companies in the extraction of tar sands?

Local and international companies include Syncrude/Suncor, Shell, Exxon Mobil and BP, and their primary interests will be generating profit from the extraction of tar sands

What are the interests of environmental pressure groups in the extraction of tar sands?

Groups such as Greenpeace call for an end to the ‘industrialisation of indigenous territories, forests and wetlands’, and will be against any environmental degradation caused by the extraction

What are the interests of local communities in the extraction of tar sands?

These players experience costs and benefits from the extraction. Their interests are to support local people, and one of the benefits is new jobs, which has the potential to boost local economies. However, the costs are fears over pollution, disruption to traditional ways of life and a new housing crisis

Give three costs of exploiting tar sands

• It is very energy intensive, requiring 1 barrel of conventional oil to produce 3 barrels of oil from tar sands

• It adds to greenhouse gas emissions

• About 1.8 million tonnes of toxic wastewater are produced every day

Give three benefits of exploiting tar sands

• It provides an alternative source of oil

• By 2030, it could meet 16% of North America’s oil needs

• It earns vital revenues for local and national economies

What are the impacts of the extraction and use of tar sands on the carbon cycle?

Carbon emissions rise due to their extraction, production and use. Carbon absorption falls due to deforestation

What are some of the consequences for the environment from the extraction of tar sands?

• Extraction creates spoil heaps, which are dumps for waste soil and sand

• Waste material ponds are created

• Large scale opencast mining destroys forest and peat bogs, causing a loss of ecosystems and habitats

How is the UK committing to decoupling the economy from fossil fuels?

• Subsidising new energy technology

• developing carbon capture schemes

• developing nuclear sources

• recycling waste energy

What is the strike price?

The minimum price per megawatt hour, which is set by the government

Why do strike prices vary?

Because energy sources can have different global supply or costs of production

What are the costs of nuclear power?

Nuclear meltdowns, such as Fukushima and Chernobyl, are rare but can have significant consequences

What are the benefits of nuclear power?

They provide energy for long amounts of time and each station creates thousands of jobs, such as Hinkley Point C, which will create 22,000 jobs

What are the costs of wind power?

Onshore wind farms are limited by planning restrictions and fears about harming bird life and creating blots on the landscape

What are the benefits of wind power?

They provide electricity for lots of homes, such as Dogger Bank, which is scheduled to supply 6 million homes by 2025

What are the costs of solar power?

There are campaigns against solar farms as groups claim developments like Cleve Hill Solar Farm are industrialising the countryside and replacing reproductive farmland

What are the benefits of solar farms?

They are a sustainable way to deliver power to homes and businesses

Why is biofuel so much better for the environment than traditional petrol?

Because cars running on bio-ethanol emit 80% less CO₂ than petrol-driven cars

What is a possible downside to biofuels?

Deforestation and the loss of farmland. Farm workers have lost land to grow sugar cane and so cannot grow food for themselves, which means many end up moving to the cities

What is another downside of biofuels to do with rural inequalities?

Companies have been buying up land in rural areas to grow sugar and soy, inflating land pices

What are recycled energy sources?

By-products of industrial processes re-used as fuel, which includes nuclear energy, where uranium is reprocessed

What are biofuels?

Fuels produced from organic matter, including plant and animal waste

What opportunities does biofuel provide?

Rural inward investment and local development projects, potentially leading to the positive multiplier effect in rural regions. Fuel also earns an export income, which can generate revenue through tax which can be used to support infrastructure improvements

What are the threats of biofuel?

It takes investment away from food production, contaminates water resources with pesticides or fertilisers and causes food shortages