Final Exam Part 1

What’s anatomy?

Study of structure

What’s physiology

Study of function

Levels of Organization (in order)

1.) Chemical (atoms & molecules)

2.) Cellular

3.) Tissue

4.) Organ

5.) Organ system

6.) Organism

Organ Systems

• Digestive

• Endocrine

• Cardiovascular

• Respiratory

• Nervous

• Urinary

• Lymphatic

• Reproductive

Digestive

Breaks down food (stomach, intestines)

Endocrine

hormone regulation (pituitary, thyroid)

Cardiovascular

transports substances (heart, blood)

Respiratory

gas exchange (lungs)

Nervous

rapid control (brain, nerves)

Urinary

removes waste (kidneys)

Lymphatic

immunity (lymph nodes, spleen)

Reproductive

produces gametes

Sagittal

divides left/right

Frontal (coronal)

front/back

Transverse

upper/lower

Proximal

Closer to attachment

Distal

farther

Lateral

away from midline

Dorsal cavity

cranial + vertebral

Ventral cavity

• Thoracic → lungs, heart

• Abdominopelvic → digestive, urinary, reproductive

Abdominopelvic Regions

• Top: right hypochondriac – epigastric – left hypochondriac

• Middle: right lumbar – umbilical – left lumbar

• Bottom: right iliac – hypogastric – left iliac

Serous Membranes

• Pleura → lungs

• Pericardium → heart

• Peritoneum → abdominal organs

Homeostasis

Maintaining stable internal conditions.

Negative feedback

reverses change (ex: temperature regulation)

Positive feedback

increases change (ex: labor contractions)

Atomic Structure

• Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-)

• Atomic number = protons

pH & Hydrogen Ions

• pH measures hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration

• Low pH = acidic

• High pH = basic

• Blood ~7.35–7.45

Carbohydrates

quick energy

Lipids

energy storage, membranes

Proteins

enzymes, structure

Nucleic acids

genetic info (DNA/RNA)

Nucleus

genetic control

Mitochondria

ATP production

Ribosomes

protein synthesis

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

transport

Golgi apparatus

Modifies/packages proteins

Cell Membrane

• Phospholipid bilayer

• Selectively permeable

Diffusion

movement down gradient

Osmosis

water diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

uses proteins

Active transport

requires ATP

Endocytosis

into cell

Exocytosis

out of cell

Phagocytosis

engulfing particles

Interphase

• G1 → growth

• S → DNA replication

• G2 → preparation

Mitosis

• Prophase

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

Four Tissue Types

• Epithelial → protection/absorption

• Connective → support

• Muscle → contraction

• Nervous → communication

Skin functions

• Protection

• Prevents water loss

• Temperature regulation

• Sensation

Epidermis Layers (deep → superficial)

1.) Stratum basale

2.) Stratum spinosum

3.) Stratum granulosum

4.) Stratum lucidum (thick skin)

5.) Stratum corneum

Key Skin Cells

• Keratinocytes → produce keratin

• Melanocytes → produce melanin

• Merkel cells → sensory receptors

Dermis Layers

• Papillary layer

• Reticular layer

Skeletal System Functions

• Support

• Protection

• Movement

• Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

Bone Structure

• Diaphysis → shaft

• Epiphysis → ends

• Medullary cavity → marrow

Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts → bone formation

• Osteocytes → mature bone cells

• Osteoclasts → bone resorption

Joint Types

• Hinge → flex/extend (elbow)

• Ball-and-socket → wide movement (shoulder)

• Pivot → rotation (neck)

• Saddle → thumb movement

Muscle Types

• Skeletal → voluntary, striated

• Cardiac → involuntary, heart

• Smooth → involuntary, organs

Muscle Organization

Muscle → fascicle → muscle fiber → myofibril → sarcomere

Sliding Filament Theory

• Myosin heads pull actin

• Sarcomere shortens → contraction

Motor Unit

motor neuron + muscle fibers

Threshold stimulus

minimum needed to contract

All-or-none

full contraction or none

Acetylcholine (ACh)

stimulates contraction

Cholinesterase

stops signal

Nervous system functions

• Sensory input

• Integration

• Motor output

Neuroglial Cells

• Astrocytes → support neurons

• Oligodendrocytes → form myelin (CNS)

• Microglial cells → immune defense

Neuron Structure

• Dendrites → receive signals

• Cell body

• Axon → sends signals

Nervous System Divisions

• Central Nervous System (CNS) → brain & spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) → nerves

Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic → fight or flight

• Parasympathetic → rest and digest

Brain

• Cerebrum → higher functions

• Cerebellum → coordination

• Brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla) → vital functions

Meninges

1. Dura mater

2. Arachnoid mater

3. Pia mater

Synapse

neuron communication

Myelin

speeds conduction

Gray matter

neuron cell bodies

White matter

myelinated axons

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

cushions brain

Gyri/Sulci

brain folds

Ascending tracts

sensory