General Psychology

Units 1-4

Biological

The study of how the brain, nervous system, and biology influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Cognitive

The scientific study of how the human brain processes information.

Behavioral

The study of observable actions, positing that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment rather than innate internal mental states.

Social-Cultural

Examines how human behavior, mental processes, and cognitive development are fundamentally shaped by social interactions, cultural norms, and the broader societal context.

Hindsight Bias

The psychological tendency to perceive past events as having been more predictable than they actually were before the outcome was known

Experimental Design

Frameworks used to test hypotheses by manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable.

Operational Definition

A clear, concise, and measurable description of a variable or abstract concept.

Independent Variable

The characteristic or manipulation that a researcher intentionally changes or introduces to observe its effect on an outcome

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response that researchers measure to see if it was affected by changes in the independent variable

Experiment

A scientific method used to understand behavior and mental processes.

Case Study

An in-depth, qualitative research method involving the detailed observation of a single individual, group, or event.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method where psychologists observe and record subjects' behaviors in their natural environment without attempting to manipulate or control the setting.

Mere Exposure Effect

The more you are exposed to something the more familiar it becomes— in turn making it reliable and making you happy.

Bystander Effect

Individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim in an emergency when other people are present

Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological discomfort you experience when holding two conflicting beliefs, or when your behavior contradicts your values.

Fundamental Attribution Error

A cognitive bias where observers overemphasize someone's personality or character traits ("they did this because of who they are") while underestimating the impact of situational factors ("they did this because of their circumstances")

Zimbardo Experiment

Philip Zimbardo's famous Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE), conducted in 1971 at Stanford University, is a cornerstone social psychology study investigating how situational forces influence human behavior.

Social Loafing

The psychological tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively than when working individually.

Solomon Asch - Conformity experiment

Demonstrated how social pressure can make individuals deny objective reality

The Process: Confederates answered aloud first, stating the wrong line. The real participant always answered second to last, facing the pressure of a unanimous group consensus.

Stereotype

A generalized belief, expectation, or assumption about a group of people based solely on their membership in that group, rather than on individual characteristics. ( BELIEF , ASSUMPTION )

In-group Bias

The natural tendency to favor individuals who share your group identity over "outsiders."

Discrimination

The unjust, differential treatment of individuals based on their group membership. (TREATMENT — ACTION )

Temporal Lobes/Occipital Lobes

The occipital lobes govern raw visual perception (colors, motion, shapes), while the temporal lobes process auditory information, memory, and meaning

Medulla

It connects the brain to the spinal cord and is exclusively responsible for vital, involuntary survival functions, including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and automatic reflexes like swallowing, coughing, and sneezing.

All or None Principle

A neuron fires an action potential at maximum strength or not at all.

Plasticity

The nervous system's lifelong ability to adapt, physically alter, and reorganize its structure and function in response to new experiences, learning, and environmental changes.

Central Nervous System

Serves as the command center for all psychological and physical processes. Located in the spinal cord and brain.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Drives the psychological and physiological "fight-or-flight" response.

Phineas Gage (limbic system, frontal lobe)

In 1848, an iron rod blasted through his skull, destroying his left frontal lobe. He survived, but his dramatic personality shift proved that the frontal lobes regulate emotional control, impulse, and social behavior.

PET scan vs MRI

Powerful neuroimaging tools used in psychology and neuroscience to visualize brain function and structure

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) details brain structure (like volume and tissue health)

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) map measures brain function (metabolism and neurotransmitter activity).

Rods and Cones (vision)

Rods control our highly sensitive, low-light, black-and-white vision, while Cones enable our detailed, daytime color vision

Serotonin/Dopamine - Neurotransmitters

Critical neurotransmitters that regulate behavior, mood, and mental health.

Split Brain Condition

A neurological and psychological phenomenon that occurs when the corpus callosum—the thick bundle of nerve fibers connecting the left and right brain hemispheres—is severed.

DSM-5

The primary classification and diagnostic tool used by mental health professionals in the United States—- AKA the Bible of Psychology

Rosenhan Study

• Phase 1: Gaining Admission
  Eight healthy "pseudo-patients" (including Rosenhan) faked auditory hallucinations to gain entry into 12 different psychiatric hospitals across five U.S. states. They reported hearing hollow, thudding voices, but otherwise provided accurate personal backgrounds and behaved completely normally upon admission.

• Phase 2: The Diagnosis
  All eight pseudo-patients were admitted and nearly all were diagnosed with schizophrenia. Once inside, they acted normally and stated their voices had stopped, yet they were kept for an average of 19 days (ranging from 7 to 52 days) before being discharged

• The 1973 Rosenhan Study ("On Being Sane in Insane Places") was a landmark psychological experiment. Conducted by Stanford psychologist David Rosenhan, it demonstrated the unreliability of psychiatric diagnoses and the dangers of institutional labeling, though modern investigations have raised concerns about data inconsistencies in the original files. [1, 2, 3, 4]

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A mental health condition characterized by persistent, excessive, and uncontrollable worry about everyday life events, such as finances, health, or work.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

A neuropsychiatric condition driven by a loop of intrusive, distressing thoughts (obsessions) and the repetitive actions (compulsions) used to temporarily neutralize them.

Dissociative Identity Disorder

A complex mental health condition characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states (alters) and severe memory gaps.

Bipolar Disorder

A psychological and mood disorder characterized by extreme shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and concentration.

Role of neurotransmitters in Depression and Schizophrenia

Depression is primarily linked to deficits in mood-regulating chemicals, whereas schizophrenia is characterized by dopamine and glutamate dysfunction leading to psychosis

Cluster A

Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Behaviors

Individuals in Cluster A exhibit peculiar, unconventional, or detached behaviors. They often struggle to form close relationships and can appear suspicious or withdrawn.

• Paranoid Personality Disorder: Marked by a pervasive and unwarranted distrust and suspicion of others, assuming they will be exploited or harmed.

• Schizoid Personality Disorder: Characterized by a detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression. They often prefer solitude and appear indifferent to others.

• Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Involves acute discomfort in close relationships, along with cognitive or perceptual distortions (e.g., magical thinking, unusual beliefs) and eccentric behavior.

Cluster B

Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors

Cluster B disorders are characterized by intense, unstable emotions and impulsive or unpredictable actions. Individuals with these disorders frequently struggle with emotional regulation and maintaining stable relationships.

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: A pervasive disregard for and violation of the rights of others. It is often marked by deceitfulness, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy or remorse.

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Defined by severe instability in moods, self-image, and interpersonal relationships. It features a deep fear of abandonment, chronic feelings of emptiness, and intense, impulsive behavior.

• Histrionic Personality Disorder: Characterized by constant attention-seeking, shallow but rapidly shifting emotions, and highly dramatic or provocative behavior.

• Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Marked by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, an ongoing need for admiration, and a significant lack of empathy for others.

Cluster C

Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful Behaviors

Cluster C is defined by chronic feelings of anxiety, fearfulness, and a strong desire for safety or control. These behaviors serve as a way to avoid perceived threats, rejection, or criticism.

• Avoidant Personality Disorder: Involves extreme social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and a hyper-sensitivity to criticism or rejection, leading to the avoidance of social situations.

• Dependent Personality Disorder: Characterized by a pervasive, excessive need to be taken care of, which leads to submissive, clinging behavior and a profound fear of separation.

• Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Distinguished by a rigid preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control, often at the expense of flexibility and efficiency.