gender external

McRobbie

bedroom culture - girls developed a ‘bedroom culture’ where they stayed at home socialising with friends, listening to music and reading magazines. this encouraged communication, literacy and emotional skills, which benefited girls in education.

Magazines and role models - girls’ magazines changed over times, 1970s- focused on romance and attracting men, 1990s - newer magazines promoted independence, careers and ambition. this gave girls more positive aspirations and helped raise achievement.

Sharpe

changing ambitions - girls’ priorities changed between the 1970s and 1990s. in the 70s girls aimed for marriage and family life, but, by the 1990s they were focused on careers, independence and education

Impact of feminism - feminism, greater career opportunities and increased female independence encouraged girls to take education more seriously because qualifications became more important for future success

Oakley

gender socialisation - boys and girls are socialised differently from an early age, which shapes their behaviour, interests and attitudes toward education

Canalisation - parents encourage gender-specific behaviour through canalisation, where children are directed towards gendered toys and activities, and boys and girls are rewarded or criticised for certain behaviours through different language towards boys and girls reinforcing gender identities from childhood.

Changes in the family

increase in divorce rates, female-headed-lone-parents households, smaller families, cohabitation