ANTHRO Final Exam SP26

What is the matai system in Samoa?

Chiefs who hold political authority in Samoan society. Titles are earned/assigned, not simply inherited, and are managed by elder councils.

What is a fa'afafine?

A recognized third gender in Samoan society — people assigned male at birth who embody both masculine and feminine traits. An important example of Pacific gender fluidity with deep cultural roots.

What was the settlement pattern of early Samoa?

Dispersed households spread across the landscape; villages were reserved for chiefs and ceremonial functions rather than everyday habitation.

What are the two key Lapita sites in Samoa and their dates?

Mulifanua (~2800 BP) and Toaga site (3000–2500 BP). Mulifanua is the only Samoan site with dentate-stamped Lapita ware and the most easterly Lapita site in the Pacific.

What makes Mulifanua unique in the Pacific?

It is the most easterly Lapita site in the entire Pacific and the only site in Samoa with dentate-stamped (decorated) Lapita pottery. It was discovered during mechanical excavation for a car-ferry berth.

What happened to Lapita pottery in Samoa?

It disappeared almost immediately after arrival — an abrupt transition to plain, thick-walled utilitarian pottery, unlike the gradual decline seen in Tonga or Fiji.

What is the difference between thick and thin ware in Samoan pottery?

Post-Lapita ware is thick-walled, plain, and utilitarian (cooking/storage). Thin ware refers to the earlier decorated Lapita pottery. The shift signals cultural change after initial colonization.

When were pigs and dogs introduced to Samoa, and why does it matter?

1700 BP. Their introduction marks intensification of agriculture, settlement permanence, and growing social complexity — commensal animals are proxies for human activity.

What are star mounds and when did they appear in Samoa?

Star-shaped earthwork mounds unique to Samoa, appearing around 500 BP alongside ridgetop fortifications. They signal increased political competition, warfare, and territorial marking.

What goods were exchanged in the Fiji-Tonga-Samoa interaction sphere?

Basalt adzes, pottery, timber (for canoe-building), and commensal animals (pigs, dogs, rats). This network is where Polynesian culture crystallized from Lapita ancestry.

What is tatau and what is the pe'a?

Tatau is the traditional Samoan tattooing tradition, one of the world's oldest. The pe'a is the traditional full male torso tattoo covering the waist to knees — a mark of identity and status.

What does "commensal" mean in Pacific archaeology?

Literally "eating at the same table." Commensal animals (rats, pigs, dogs, chickens) travel with humans and depend on human settlements, making their bones proxies for human movement.

What is the modern rat model in Pacific archaeology?

The distribution of living and ancient Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) populations tracks human migration routes. Multiple genetic introductions indicate multiple waves of human contact; isolated populations indicate single colonization events.

Which Pacific islands show multiple rat introductions?

Society Islands, Cook Islands, New Zealand, and Hawaii — indicating multiple waves of human contact with these islands.

Which Pacific islands show isolated/single rat introductions?

Marquesas, Easter Island (Rapa Nui), and Chatham Islands — suggesting single colonization events with minimal later contact.

What is the aDNA rat model?

Ancient DNA extracted from rat bones at archaeological sites allows researchers to trace specific genetic lineages across islands, confirming migration routes and colonization sequences with more precision than morphology alone.

What is the significance of no Lapita-era dog being found?

It's a notable absence — dogs are otherwise common commensal animals. Researchers are still investigating whether dogs arrived with Lapita people or later. Modern dog mtDNA traces Pacific dog ancestry to Southeast Asia.

What are the two pig clades relevant to the Pacific?

The Asian pig clade (the broader ancestral group originating in Southeast Asia) and the Pacific clade (a sub-clade within Asian pigs that differentiated after introduction to Remote Oceania).

Where were Lapita-era chickens found?

At Lapita-period sites in Vanuatu and Tonga — among the earliest domesticated chickens documented in the Pacific.

How many mtDNA lineages do Polynesian chickens have, and what does that mean?

Two distinct mitochondrial DNA lineages — meaning at least two separate introduction events of domesticated chickens into Polynesia.

When were chickens introduced to South America and why is that significant?

~700 BP. This is strong archaeological evidence (from El Arenal site in Chile) for pre-Columbian Polynesian contact with the Americas — Polynesians reached South America before Europeans did.

What are the five main methods for studying domesticated plants archaeologically?

Modern DNA analysis, pollen (from sediment cores), starch grains (preserved on tools/soil), charred tubers (burned root vegetable remains), and phytoliths (microscopic silica plant cell bodies preserved in soil).

What is the Yuku rockshelter and why is it important?

A rockshelter in Papua New Guinea dated to 14,500 BP — one of the earliest sites showing human management of cultivated plants in the Pacific, pushing plant use back to the Pleistocene.

What is the west-to-east plant diversity gradient in the Pacific?

Domesticated plant diversity decreases from west to east. Fiji, Solomons, and Caroline Islands are most diverse; Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island have fewest domesticates. Reflects sequential colonization from west to east.

Where did taro originate and what is its significance?

Southeast Asia. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a primary starchy staple grown in both irrigated (lo'i) and dryland forms across the Pacific.

Where did breadfruit originate?

Papua New Guinea / West Micronesia. Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) is a calorie-dense staple especially important in the Marquesas (eaten as fermented paste called ma).

Where did kava originate and what is it used for?

PNG / Solomons / Vanuatu. Kava (Piper methysticum) is a psychoactive beverage used in ceremonial contexts across Polynesia and Melanesia (Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu).

Where did paper mulberry originate and what is it used for?

Southeast Asia. Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) is used to make tapa cloth — a prestige textile found across Polynesia.

Where did the sweet potato originate and why is it archaeologically significant?

South America (Ipomoea batatas). Its American origin proves pre-Columbian contact between Polynesia and the Americas. Introduced to Polynesia ~700–1000 BP, to Hawaii ~700–600 BP, and to New Zealand ~500 BP.

What is the plant dispersal pathway in Polynesia?

Central Polynesia received plants from Fiji/Tonga/Samoa (western Polynesian homeland). Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island then received plants from Central Polynesia (Cook Islands, Societies, Marquesas).

What are the southern and northern Cook Islands?

Southern Cooks: Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia. Northern Cooks: Manihiki and Rakahanga (low coral atolls). The northern atolls are famous for black pearl farming.

What is the political relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand?

A cultural and political relationship where Cook Islanders hold New Zealand citizenship/passports. The islands are self-governing in free association with NZ.

What is the significance of the Cook Islands for Maori origins?

Cook Islands oral traditions and archaeological evidence both point to the Cooks (and broader East Polynesia) as the ancestral homeland of New Zealand's founding Maori population.

What happened at the Tangatatau rockshelter on Mangaia?

Dated 1000–800 BP; represents earliest occupation on Mangaia. Bird bone assemblages document dramatic extinction of multiple endemic species shortly after human arrival.

What is the Ureia site on Mangaia?

Dated 800–600 BP; coastal midden site with hearths and postholes. Shows intensification of agriculture and resource use following bird extinctions. Marae were established in each district during this period.

What happened to Mangaia by 500 BP?

A full chiefdom-level polity emerged with island divisions into competing districts (tapere), each with its own chief. Marks a period of intense intergroup conflict and political competition.

Describe the geography of the Marquesas Islands.

Extremely rugged — steep volcanic cliffs, deep V-shaped bays. Cold upwelling currents and dry trade winds prevent reef formation, so there are no fringing coral reefs.

What are the implications of no reef in the Marquesas?

Limited shallow-water fisheries pushed subsistence toward terrestrial agriculture (especially breadfruit) and open-ocean fishing. No reef also means no coastal lagoons for shelter or fish farming.

When did Europeans first contact the Marquesas and who was responsible?

1595 AD — Spanish captain Alvaro de Mendana de Neira encountered the southern Marquesas. In 1790, whalers arrived, including Herman Melville (who wrote Typee based on his visit in 1842).

What is the modern political status of the Marquesas Islands?

Part of French Polynesia — an Overseas Collectivity of France.

When were the Marquesas colonized and what is the evidence?

~1000 BP. The Hanamiai site is the primary evidence for initial colonization; bird extinction assemblages document immediate human impact.

What happened in the Marquesas between 600–500 BP?

Major population growth, resource pressure, inter-valley warfare, competition between chiefs and priests, and archaeologically documented cannibalism (human bone processing patterns).

What is 'ma' in Marquesan culture?

Fermented breadfruit paste — breadfruit was fermented in large earth pits, producing a sour paste that could be stored for years. This technology was critical for food security during periods of drought or conflict.

What is a paepae in Marquesas archaeology?

Elevated rectangular stone house platforms found throughout Marquesan valleys. Houses were constructed on top of these stone foundations.

What are Marquesan tiki?

Large carved stone ancestor statues representing deified ancestors and chiefly lineages — conceptually similar to Rapa Nui moai but distinct in form and scale.

When was Rapa Nui colonized?

1000–800 BP (approximately AD 1100–1200). This is a revised date based on recalibrated radiocarbon evidence — earlier estimates of 800 CE are now considered affected by the old wood problem.

What is Jared Diamond's "ecocide" argument about Rapa Nui?

Rapanui people deforested their island to transport moai on wooden rollers, causing ecological collapse, warfare, famine, and societal breakdown before European contact.

What is the Hunt & Lipo counter-argument to the Rapa Nui collapse narrative?

Rats (not just people) caused most deforestation by eating palm seeds and preventing regeneration. The walking moai hypothesis shows statues didn't need much timber. Population was stable until European contact brought disease and slavery — collapse was colonial, not prehistoric.

What role did Polynesian rats play in Rapa Nui's deforestation?

Rats exploded in population after arrival (potentially millions), consuming Jubaea palm nuts — preventing forest regeneration. The island's palms had no predators and could not survive rat predation on seeds. Rat predation combined with human clearing caused deforestation.

What are moai?

Monolithic stone figures carved by the Rapanui people (~1250–1500 CE). ~1,000 exist on the island. They represent deified ancestors (aringa ora — "living faces") and embody mana (spiritual power). Almost all face inland, protecting the living community.

What are ahu?

Rectangular stone ceremonial platforms on Rapa Nui upon which moai were erected. They also functioned as tombs. The moai placed on ahu had coral eyes (white) and obsidian pupils installed to "activate" them.

How were moai transported? (The walking hypothesis)

Researchers Hunt and Lipo demonstrated that moai "walked" upright in a rocking, zigzag motion using ropes. Road moai have a wide D-shaped base and forward-leaning center of gravity that enables rocking. 18 people moved a 4.35-ton replica 100m in 40 minutes.

What is the physical evidence supporting the walking moai hypothesis?

Road moai have distinct D-shaped bases and forward lean (different from finished ahu moai). Roads are 4.5m wide with concave cross-sections — designed to stabilize upright moving statues. Breakage patterns and distribution match transport failure, not ceremonial placement.

Why does the method of moai transport matter archaeologically?

If dragged on wooden rollers → required massive deforestation → supports Diamond's ecocide narrative. If walked upright → needed minimal wood → statue-building did NOT cause deforestation → collapse narrative loses its central mechanism.

What is the significance of Rapa Nui oral tradition regarding moai?

Oral history always said statues "walked" — the walking hypothesis confirms indigenous knowledge, which had been dismissed by Western archaeologists for decades.

What is rock mulch gardening on Rapa Nui?

An ingenious agricultural technique of placing stones around crops to retain soil moisture, reduce erosion, and improve fertility — evidence of sophisticated adaptation to a degraded, resource-poor environment.

What modern struggles does Rapa Nui face?

Part of Chile since 1888; indigenous population seeks greater self-governance and control over tourism. Past colonial damage includes slave raids (1860s reduced population to ~100), sheep ranching, and now mass tourism threatening both moai and living culture.

What type of islands are New Zealand's main islands?

Continental islands — geologically much older and larger than typical Pacific volcanic islands. Much more diverse terrain, climate zones, and biodiversity than any other Polynesian territory.

What are moa and why are they significant for NZ archaeology?

Moa were giant flightless birds endemic to New Zealand (multiple species). They were a primary prey species for early Maori settlers and went extinct shortly after human arrival due to hunting. Their bones are key evidence in early Maori archaeological sites.

What is the Wairau Bar site?

New Zealand's most significant early archaeological site (~1000 BP / more precisely ~1280–1300 CE), located on a gravel bar where the Wairau River meets the sea in Marlborough, South Island. Evidence includes moa bones (4,000+ consumed), adzes, fish hooks, and burials linking settlers to East Polynesia.

What does DNA from Wairau Bar burials show?

DNA from skeletal remains shows the settlers were part of a planned, reasonably large group (not random castaways), with genetic patterns similar to Marquesas Islands populations — confirming East Polynesian origin of founding Maori.

What is the old wood problem?

A radiocarbon dating issue where driftwood or long-lived timber gives falsely early (too old) dates. Major problem for Hawaiian and New Zealand chronology — modern dating now uses short-lived materials like moa eggshell aDNA for precision.

When was sweet potato introduced to New Zealand and why does it matter?

~500 BP. Sweet potato (kumara) enabled more intensive agriculture, particularly on the warmer North Island, supporting population growth and increasing social complexity.

How did Maori adapt to New Zealand's cooler climate?

Feather cloaks (kahu huruhuru) for warmth, more enclosed wooden houses, and an early subsistence focus on hunting (moa, seals) and gathering rather than tropical horticulture.

What is a pa site?

Fortified Maori hilltop village featuring earthwork ramparts, palisades (wooden fence walls), and ditches. Proliferates across the North Island ~500–300 BP, indicating increasing competition and warfare over land and resources.

What was the function of the marae in New Zealand?

The marae (sacred plaza/ceremonial ground) served as a community center for political meetings, religious ceremonies, and social gatherings — equivalent to marae in other Polynesian societies.

What are the sources of conflict in Maori society?

Land ownership, resource access, status rivalry, genealogical disputes, and revenge cycles. These escalated with population growth and the limits of agricultural land, driving pa construction and intergroup skirmishes.

What is the Treaty of Waitangi?

New Zealand's founding document (1840), signed between the British Crown and over 500 Maori chiefs. Written in both English and Maori (te reo) — the two versions contain different meanings, creating 180+ years of legal dispute over sovereignty and rights.

Why do the English and Maori versions of the Treaty of Waitangi differ?

Translation issues: the Maori version uses "tino rangatiratanga" (full chiefly authority/sovereignty), which Maori understood to mean they retained sovereignty. The English version transferred sovereignty to the Crown. This discrepancy drives ongoing legal conflict.

What was the 2024 Treaty Principles Bill?

Proposed by ACT Party leader David Seymour as part of New Zealand's coalition government. Introduced November 2024. Would have redefined the "principles of the Treaty of Waitangi" to emphasize equal rights for all New Zealanders, effectively eroding specific Maori rights.

What was the response to the 2024 Treaty Principles Bill?

40,000–50,000 people marched on Parliament (largest political protest in NZ history); Maori MPs performed haka in Parliament chamber; 42 senior barristers wrote to oppose it; the Waitangi Tribunal called it potentially "the worst breach of the Treaty in modern times." Bill passed first reading but lacked votes to become law.

How far is Hawaii from its source population islands?

2,280 miles from the Marquesas and Society Islands — the primary source populations for Hawaiian colonization.

What are the five main Hawaiian islands studied in this course?

Hawai'i (Big Island), O'ahu, Moloka'i, Maui, and Kaua'i. All are high volcanic islands.

How do trade winds affect Hawaiian settlement patterns?

Northeast trade winds create distinct leeward (dry/rain shadow) and windward (wet) sides on each island. Early settlements concentrated on windward coasts where freshwater and agricultural conditions were better.

What is the old wood problem in Hawaiian archaeology?

Early radiocarbon dates from Hawaii used driftwood or long-lived wood species, giving falsely early results. This inflated colonization dates significantly. Modern dating uses short-lived materials.

What is the Bellows Beach site and what are its revised dates?

One of Hawaii's earliest confirmed archaeological sites, located on O'ahu. Revised dates: 1000–800 BP. Artifacts show connections to South Point (Big Island) and Marquesas Islands. Original dates (~600 CE) are now considered affected by the old wood problem.

What is the ahupuaʻa?

The fundamental self-sufficient economic and social unit of pre-contact Hawaii. A wedge-shaped land division running from mountain summit to shoreline, usually following watershed boundaries. Name means "pig altar" — boundary marked by a stone cairn with a pig offering.

What ecological zones does an ahupuaʻa contain?

Upland forest (timber, birds, medicinal plants), agricultural zones (irrigated taro in valleys, dryland sweet potato/yams on slopes), and coastal zone (fish, salt, reef resources, aquaculture).

How was the ahupuaʻa governed?

Ruled by an aliʻi (chief), administered by a konohiki (land overseer/manager). Commoners (maka'ainana) paid weekly labor taxes to the konohiki, which went to support the chief.

Why was the ahupuaʻa self-sufficient?

Travel was easier up-and-downstream than valley-to-valley, and each division included enough ecological zones (mountain to sea) that communities could meet most needs locally while generating surplus for chiefly tribute.

What crops were grown in the irrigated vs. rain-fed zones of an ahupuaʻa?

Irrigated (lo'i): primarily taro (kalo). Rain-fed (dryland/mala): sweet potato (ʻuala), yams, dryland taro, coconuts, breadfruit, bananas, and sugar cane.

What is a heiau?

Hawaiian stone temple — the equivalent of Polynesian marae. Centers of religious activity, chiefly legitimation, and priestly ritual (including sacrifice). Priests (kahuna) managed heiau ceremonies.

What is the kapu system?

An extensive set of sacred Hawaiian prohibitions governing daily life — including food restrictions, gender separation during meals, and rules around sacred objects/persons. Breaking kapu could be punishable by death. Abolished in 1819 by Kamehameha II.

What does "surfing" represent in Hawaiian culture?

Heʻe nalu (wave-sliding) was not merely sport — it was deeply tied to Hawaiian spirituality and chiefly prestige. Chiefs demonstrated mana through surfing skill and had sacred surfboards.

When was sweet potato introduced to Hawaii and what changed?

~700–600 BP. Enabled expansion of dryland agriculture across leeward slopes, supporting population growth and ultimately the intensification that drove state formation.

What is the Hawaiian Archaic State and when did it develop?

One of the few indigenous state formations in Oceania, developing ~500–300 BP. Characterized by large-scale agricultural intensification, bureaucratic administration, standing armies, systematic tribute, and centralized political authority.

Who was Kamehameha I and what did he accomplish?

Born ~1758 on the Big Island; unified all Hawaiian Islands into the Kingdom of Hawai'i by 1810 — the first time this had been achieved. Ruled until his death in 1819.

How did Kamehameha gain military advantage?

After British ships arrived, he secured European cannons, muskets, and two British advisors (Isaac Davis and John Young) who trained his warriors in Western warfare tactics — a decisive edge over rival chiefs.

What was the Battle of Nu'uanu?

1795 battle on O'ahu where Kamehameha deployed 10,000–12,000 warriors in 1,500 canoes, driving rival warriors over the Pali cliffs. Secured O'ahu and effectively consolidated his control of the main islands.

What is seine fishing?

A fishing method using large nets deployed in a circle or drag pattern to catch fish. Traditional communal practice across Pacific islands — relevant to understanding traditional marine resource management vs. modern industrial overfishing.

What is the North Pacific garbage gyre?

A massive accumulation of plastic debris (primarily microplastics) trapped by circular ocean currents in the North Pacific. Pacific Island nations generate almost no plastic but suffer enormous environmental harm from it — a stark global inequity.

What is coral bleaching and why does it threaten Pacific Islands?

When ocean temperatures rise, corals expel their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae), turning white and dying. Coral reefs are critical for Pacific fisheries, coastal protection, and tourism. Climate change is causing mass bleaching events that destroy reef ecosystems.

What is sea level rise and why is it existential for Pacific Islands?

Thermal expansion of warming oceans and melting ice raises global sea levels. Low-lying atoll nations (Tuvalu, Kiribati, Marshall Islands) face complete inundation this century. Coastal archaeological sites are also being lost to erosion and flooding.

How is plastic pollution affecting Pacific Islands specifically?

Remote islands act as plastic collectors due to current patterns. Marine life ingests microplastics, entering the food chain. Subsistence fishing economies are threatened. Islands that produce minimal plastic suffer disproportionate consequences.

What is mana?

A Polynesian concept of spiritual power, prestige, and authority. Mana inheres in chiefs, priests, important objects, and places. Actions that enhance mana strengthen one's social position; losing mana is socially devastating.

What is Lapita culture?

Archaeological culture (3500–2500 BP) identified by distinctive dentate-stamped pottery and shell adzes. Associated with Austronesian-speaking ancestors of Polynesians, Micronesians, and some Melanesians. Lapita sites span from Bismarck Archipelago to Samoa.

What does "dentate-stamped" mean in Lapita pottery?

Decorated with intricate geometric patterns made by pressing a toothed/dentate tool into the wet clay surface before firing. This distinctive decoration is the hallmark of Lapita pottery and disappears in Western Polynesia ~2500–2000 BP.

What are phytoliths?

Microscopic silica bodies produced inside plant cells that survive in soil long after the plant has decomposed. Used in archaeology to identify plant species when no macrobotanical remains (seeds, charred tubers) are preserved.

What is mtDNA and why is it used in Pacific archaeology?

Mitochondrial DNA — passed maternally with very few mutations. Used to trace maternal lineage, population origins, and migration routes in both humans and animals (dogs, pigs, chickens, rats) across the Pacific.

What is the difference between a chiefdom and an archaic state?

A chiefdom is a ranked society led by a hereditary chief with limited bureaucracy, relying on personal relationships and prestige. An archaic state has more centralized authority, formal bureaucracy, standing armies, systematic tribute/taxation, and coercive power. Hawaii developed one of the only indigenous archaic states in Oceania.