bio quiz

ecology

study of interactions among organisms and their environment

Biotic interactions

interactions among living things

abiotic interactions

interactions between organisms and their nonliving environment

organismal

investigates how adaptations and choices by individual animals affect reproduction and survival

population

focuses on groups of interbreeding individuals and species interactions

community

studies how populations of species interact to form communities

ecosystem

deals with the flow of energy and cycling of elements between organisms and the environment

scientific method

1. 1. make an observation

2. 2. form a hypothesis

3. 3. perform an experiment

4. 4. analyze your data

5. 5. acceptance or rejection of hypothesis

temperature

regulates physiological processes, dictating species survival and geographic distribution based on growth conditions

wind

shapes vegetation structures and influences seed dispersal, affecting plant community composition and ecosystem dynamics

water

determines species aggregation, vegetation, and biodiversity

light, salinity, pH variables

light availability is crucial for photosynthesis, while specific salinity and pH levels restrict species to environments they can tolerate, such as salt marshes or peat bogs.

sun in polar areas

sun’s rays strike the earth at an oblique angle and deliver 40% less energy than at tropical locations.

sun in tropical areas

sun’s energy is concentrated over a smaller surface area and travels a shorter distance through the atmosphere

movement of high temp equatorial air

rises and falls back towards the poles at 30 degrees latitude; provides rainfall for equatorial forests. air at poles has little moisture left

mutualism

ecological relationship between two or more species in which both members benefit

altruism

behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing its own fitness.

• - an organism can pass on its genes by ensuring that relatives survive

commensalism

relationship between two species in which one species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed

competition

the interaction between organisms or species in which both are harmed when they vie for the same limited resources.

amensalism

biological interaction where one organism is harmed or inhibited while the other remains unaffected

neutralism

biological interaction in which two species coexist without affecting each other’s survival, growth, or reproduction.

predation/ herbivory/ parasitism

antagonistic interactions where one organism benefits at the expense of another, shaping ecosystems and driving evolutionary adaptations.

can two different species occupy the same exact ecological niche at the same time?

no

competitive exclusion

this hypothesis asserts that two species competing for the same limited resource cannot coexist at constant population values. If one species has even the slightest advantage over another, the less competitive one will be driven to extinction

resource partitioning

differentiation of niches in space and time enables similar species to coexist

chemical defense

the use of specialized biochemical compounds by organisms to protect themselves from predators or threats

aposematic coloration

(of coloration or markings) serving to warn or repel predators.

cryptic coloration

type of animal coloration that helps an organism blend into its surroundings, making it difficult for predators or prey to detect it.

batesian mimicry

mimicry in which an edible animal is protected by its resemblance to a noxious one that is avoided by predators

intimidation

refers to behaviors that deter or coerce individuals by threatening violence or other forms of coercion

What did plants develop in order to deter herbivores? Why?

secondary metabolites like alkaloids, phenolics, and terpenoids. Theyre toxic or bitter but beneficial to humans

additional antipredation strategies include:

• - armor: involves the use of physical defenses to deter predators. These strategies can include hard shells, spines, and toxic substances.

• - masting: production of exceptionally large seed crops by a population of plants at irregular intervals (in non-masting years, controls the “predator” population and then overwhelms them all at once)

• - agility: is a locomotor defense that allows an animal to escape even when it isn't faster than its attacker. While speed is a straight line, agility is the ability to change direction and velocity rapidly and with precision.

• - fighting back: often used when escape is impossible or when the prey has evolved specific "weaponry" that makes the cost of an attack too high for the predator.

communication is used to __

modify the behavior of others

what do animals use to attract mates?

visual, auditory, and pheromone signals

how can scent be used?

to mark territories

example of tactile communication?

honeybee waggle dance

inclusive fitness

total number of copies of genes passed on through one’s relatives or as one’s own offspring

kin selection

behavior that lowers an individual’s own fitness but enhances the reproductive success of relatives

reciprocal altruism

behavior where an organism provides a benefit to another with an expectation of receiving a benefit in return at a later time.

genetic relatedness

impacts the evolution of social behaviors, particularly the favoring of altruistic genes through natural selection

hamilton’s rule

predicts altruistic behavior based on genetic relatedness

• - altruism favored if rB > C, where r=relatedness coefficient, B=benefit to recipient, and C=cost to donor

polygyny

seen in elephant seals, involves one male mating with many females

polyandry

exemplified by pipefish, involves one female mating with many males

monogamy

common in many bird species, involves one male and one female forming a pair bond

promiscuity

observed in chimpanzees, involves both males and females having multiple mating partners

innate behavior: fixed action patterns

involuntary, automatic sequences of behavior triggered by a specific stimulus (ex. egg rolling in geese)

innate behaviors: migration

seasonal, long-distance movement of animals typically driven by genetic and environmental cues (ex. bird migration)

learned behaviors: foraging

the act of searching for and exploiting food resources, which can be refined through experience and social learning

learned behaviors: imprinting

a form of learning occurring at a specific life stage where young animals form attachments and learn behaviors from their parents (ex. ducklings following their mother)

learned behaviors: classical conditioning

associative learning where an animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a significant one (ex. pavlov’s dogs salivating at the sound of a bell)

learned behaviors: operant conditioning

behavior is shaped by rewards or punishments (ex. a rat pressing a lever to receive food)

learned behaviors: cognitive learning

learning that involves understanding, problem-solving, and reasoning, often through observation and insight (ex. chimpanzees using tools to obtain food)

mullerian mimicry

occurs when two or more genuinely harmful species evolve similar warning signals to mutually reinforce predator avoidance

sexual dimorphism: monogamous species tend to ___

have similar sized genders

sexual dimorphism: polygynous species tend to ___

have larger males

sexual dimorphism: polyandrous species tend to ____

have larger females

population ecology

studies factors affecting population size and how they change over space and time

demography

birth rates, death rates, age distributions, and sizes of populations

density

number of organisms in a given unit area

quadrat method

estimates population size by counting individuals within a series of randomly placed square plots that are extrapolated to the entire habitat

mark-recapture

capture and mark some individuals, release back into the wild, and then recapture to determine the % marked

dispersion

degree of spacing between individuals in a population

survivorship

proportion of individuals in a population that survive to a particular age

fecundity

the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population, often measured by the number of offspring produced

semelparity

produce all offspring in a single reproductive event

iteroparity

patterns of repeated reproductions throughout life cycle

exponential growth

represented by the red curve, showing rapid population increase without constraints, following the equation: dN/dt= rN

logistic growth

represented by the blue curve, showing population growth slowing as it approaches carrying capacity K, following the equation: dN/dt= rN [(K-N)/K]

carrying capacity (K)

the maximum population size that an environment can sustain, indicated by the dashed line

population dynamics

logistic growth incorporates limiting factors, demonstrating how resources and environmental pressures regulate population size

density-dependent factors

competition, predation, disease; become more intense as pop size increases

density-independent factors

affect population size regardless of density; weather and natural disasters

r-selected species

thrive in unpredictable environments, with high fecundity and low parental investment often influenced by density-independent factors

k-selected species

adapted to stable environments, with low fecundity and high parental investment, often regulated by density-dependent factors

species-area relationship

studies have shown that the number of species present increases with the size of the habitat, demonstrating that larger habitats support higher species richness

biodiversity-stability

elton’s hypothesis suggests a linear correlation between species diversity and ecosystem function, indicating that more diverse ecosystems tend to be more stable and resilient.

field experiments

experiments with plots of native prairie plants showed that more diverse plots had increased productivity, used nutrients more efficiently, and had higher resistance to invasive species

community function

increased species richness improves overall community function, as evidenced by higher arthropod species richness and better resource utilization in diverse plant communities

extinction

the permanent loss of all individuals of a species, resulting in its disappearance from the planet. it is a natural process, but human activities have accelerated the rate significantly

main causes of extinction

major causes include introduced species, direct exploitation, habitat destruction, climate change, loss of genetic diversity, genetic drift, and limited mating opportunities

impact of human population growth

The rapid increase in human population is directly linked to the rise in animal extinctions, particularly since the 17th century. This relationship highlights the significant impact of human activities on biodiversity loss.

threats to biodiversity

Introduced species often outcompete native species for resources, leading to extinctions. Overharvesting, habitat loss, and climate change further exacerbate the decline in biodiversity, posing severe threats to various species' survival

what are the main threats to species?

humans

extinction example: introduced species

hawaiian honeycreeper exterminated by avian malaria from introduced mosquitoes

extinction example: direct exploitation

passenger pigeon hunted to extinction for its meat

extinction example: habitat destruction

ivory-billed woodpecker likely extinct due to loss of habitat

extinction example: climate change

human induced global warming is predicted to cause 15-37% of species in biodiverse regions to go extinct by 2050

inbreeding

Breeding among genetically related relatives. More likely in small populations. Tends to increase recessive homozygotes, decrease genetic diversity and decrease reproductive fitness of the population.

limited mating

The effective population size (EPS) is the number of individuals that contribute genes to future populations.
• Harem breeding structures where only a few dominant males breed have a smaller EPS.

genetic drift

Random changes in allele frequencies due to chance. Small population sizes (N) can result in decreased genetic diversity over time

community ecology

examines interactions between species within a shared habitat

species diversity

refers to the number of different species in a habitat and their relative abundance.

shannon diversity index

measures the species diversity of a community

elton’s diversity-stability hypothesis

Disturbances in a species-rich community are cushioned by large numbers of interacting species and do not produce as drastic an effect as it would on a less diverse community

indicator species

species status provides indication of overall ecosystem health

umbrella species

Have very large habitats; protecting them protects many species

flagship species

a single, large or instantly recognizable species

keystone species

have a disproportionate impact on the community

foundation species

considered the base or bedrock of a community

endemic species

species that are only found in a specific location and nowhere else