soci250 final

auguste comte

• founder of sociology

• instilled notion that human behaviour is a function of forces beyond control of individual (social structure forces)

sociological perspective

asserts that individuals are socialized into existing social structures as they internalize society’s norms or social expectations - this promotes conformist behaviour

emile durkheim

one of founding fathers of sociology

• structural functionalist

• sees individual behaviour as the product of the social environment rather than intrinsic traits

• believe that human groups will always make rules, and that every group will have some members who break some of them (crime/deviance)

structural functionalism

asserts that all social structures work together to promote a stable and harmonious society

consensus theory of social order

society as a set of interrelated parts that contribute to the overall functioning of the whole

conflict theory of social order

society as an assortment of disparate groups competing for power and resources

• society’s most powerful define what or who is deviant, typically in a way that best satisfies their own interests

• marxist

symbolic interactionism theory of social order

less about social order and more about social processes through which criminal behaviour is learned (eg. imitation and interaction)

• gabrial tarde

social-structural tradition

looks for root causes of crime in social institutions such as family, religion, and the economic, education, and political systems

• crime = product of macro conditions

ecological school of criminology

how elements of the physical and social environment interact to create a criminal environment

concentric-circle theory

suggests that cities develop from the inner city to the suburbs in a predictable series of concentric rings, each of which encompasses a particular set of social and environmental characteristics

• zone 2, the transitional zone, is plagued with crime

shaw and mckay’s cultural transmission theory

sees deviance as a socially learned behaviour that is transmitted through successive generations, especially in disorganized urban settings

durkheim’s anomie

state of deregulation, breakdown, or normlessness in society, usually attributed to decreased homogeneity

• social organization is necessary to keep undesirable human tendencies in check

• more anomie = more crime

merton’s strain theory

emotional turmoil and conflict as resulting from individuals’ inability to achieve socially approved goals through legitimate means

• conformity: internalized both means and goals

• innovation: accept goals, reject socially accepted means

• ritualism: adopt means, do not pursue goals

• retreatism: reject goals and accept means

• rebellion: reject entire system

three general forms of strain

• caused by failure to achieve positively valued goals

• caused by removal of positively valued stimuli from individual

• caused by presentation of negative stimuli

clarence ray jeffrey

pioneer of crime prevention model who argued that in order for a crime to ccur, three elements must be present: motivation, skill, opportunity

• for prevention, skill and motivation are difficult to combat

• focus should be to reduce opportunities presented by the social and physical environment

conflict theory

sees crime as the product of social/economic disparities in society and suggests that people resort to criminal activity in response to division and competition

• marx

• point to discriminatory practices within the criminal justice system, discrimination against the lower classes, and bias in the ways in which laws are created and used to support the status of those who make them

peacemaking theory

humanistic approach to crime control that emphasizes reconciliation through mediation and dispute settlement, rather than punishment and retribution

• punishment is seen as no less violent than crime

left-realism

• commitment to detailed empirical investigation - heavy reliance on victimization data

• independence and objectivity of criminal activity

• disorganizing effect of crime - all crimes are serious

• possibility and desirability of developing measures to reduce crime

cultural criminology

explores the many ways in which cultural dynamics intertwine with the practices of crime and crime control contemporary society

• views crime as momentary event and social issue

• examines media’s role in creating moral panic

moral panic

widespread concern about an issue involving a deviant behaviour whose seriousness and frequency have been greatly exaggerated

restorative justice

direct and indirect mediation model that emphasizes restitution and community participation, aimed at rehabilitating offedners and reintegrating them back into their communities

• emphasizes social rather than moral responsibility

• public shaming

• crime is seen as an injury to person

liberal approach to crime control

focuses on alleviating social and economic inequalities and providing legitimate opportunities for everyone

• originates in belief that humans are naturally and fundamentally good

• achieving social reform through vocational training, social assistance, job creation, community involvement

• treating and rehabilitating offenders

critical approach to crime control

addresses both conventional and non-conventional crimes by attempting to eliminate structural inequalities that are the basis of capitalism

• using unofficial sources (eg. self-report and victimization surveys) that indicate that crime is not concentrated in lower socio-economic groups but can be found across all social classes

• shifting focus from the offender to the social system and calling for the construction of a fundamentally different system

integrated and interdisciplinary approach to crime control

attempts to combine two or more complementary theories as well as knowledge from at least two disciplinary perspectives to produce theories of behaviour that can better serve as the basis for intervention and prevention strategies

• sees handling crime as objective as opposed to controlling it of solving problems behind it

• criminal behaviour = human behaviour

labelling theory

proposes that negative labelling can predispose people to feel like outcasts, increasing likelihood of further deviant or criminal behaviour

• stigma attached to label can make it difficult for them to reintegrate into society

moral entrepreneurs

individuals who use their power/influence to shape the legal system to their advantage, typically by drawing attention to issues that they have identified as social problems

primary deviance

acts or behaviour that run counter to societal norms but have not been socially recognized or labelled as deviant

secondary deviance

deviant acts or behaviour that result from labelling

public-order crimes

activities deemed illegal because they are viewed as immoral or harmful, even though the parties who engage in them do so by choice (eg. gambling, prostitution, porn, substance abuse, vandalism)

consensus perspective of law

sees law as representing the interests society

conflict perspective of law

sees law as representing the interests of specific groups in society

gambling

• Covered in sections 197-209 in criminal code as gaming and betting 

• Legalizing undermines the exploitation of gambling by organized crime groups 

• Casinos on First Nations’ lands give Indigenous peoples an opportunity to benefit economically from provincial casino revenues 

• Liberalization of gambling laws has reduced organized crime’s income from gambling 

• Legalization of many forms of gambling has sparked a rise in problem gamblers 

• Compulsive gamblers are those who experience gambling addiction; they often struggle with other addictions and certain psychiatric disorders 

substance abuse

• There has been a drug epidemic in north america since at least since the 1960s 

• In ancient times, alcohol was the most prevalent psychoactive substance 

• By the 19th century, alcohol was frequently used and abused throughout western world 

• In canada, there was a federal prohibition on alcohol from 1918 to 1920 

• It was not until the late 1800s and early 1900s that drug regulation became an issue in north america

3 classes of psychoactive drugs

• stimulants: elevate the user’s sense of well-being - referred to as uppers, keep user alert and able to resist fatigue

• depressants: slow the central nervous system - can induce sleep, alleviate pain, relax muscles, reduce anxiety, and create a sense of euphoria

• hallucinogens: create altered state of awareness (eg. marijuana, PCP, LSD)

sir robert peel

• power of police depends on public approval of their actions and behaviour

• Maintaining the respect of the public means securing their cooperation to respect societal laws 

• Police must demonstrate absolute impartiality, courtesy, and friendly good humour

• Police must use minimal force when trying to restore and/or enforce the law

alexander maconochie

• Reward: prisoners must earn their release through industrious labour and good conduct 

• Individual influence: if it is to offer constructive support, a prison should not have more than 300 inmates, or 100 for more serious offenders 

• Gradual release: prisons should provide for gradual release (eg. through halfway houses)

• Post-release supervision: there should be strict supervision after discharge

john haviland

design prisons to reform rather than confine inmates

john howard

instrumental in establishing prisoner advocacy groups

charles lucas

• maximum vs minimum sentences

• system for classification of inmates based on their moral improvement

• separation of adult and young offenders

moral insanity

a form of mental illness in which the offender’s ability to reason is temporarily interrupted

• basis of modern verdicts of “not criminally responsible”

M’Naghten rule

underpins the designation of not criminally responsibile because of mental disorder in canada (NCRMD)

• created in 1992 and assigned to ffenders found not guilty of crime due to mental illness

• sentenced to custodial forensic facilities where they receive ongoing care by psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, and other staff, who assist on stabilizing and rehabilitating the individual

postmodernism

theoretical framework derived from critical criminology that essentially rejects the self-evident reality of distinctions made by conventional scientific knowledge/common sense

conservative approach to crime control

relies on CJS to deter and incapacitate criminals by incarcerating offenders

• Belief that all humans possess the capacity for both good and evil 

• Controlling crime to preserve status quo, legal order, and family values 

• Emphasis on conventional crime 

• Incarceration and the principle of “just deserts”

• Expanding the size, reach, and authority of police forces 

• Maintaining social control, even if that means compromising individual freedoms

new forms of crime

• any crimes in which current technology can be exploited

• transnational and international crimes

• crimes related to the mass movement (legal and irregular) by people

• environmental and space crimes

comparative criminology

study of crime patterns and prevention methods in diverse cultural and national settings undertaken to develop theories and strategies that can be applied across cultural and political boundaries

integrated theory

study of crime patterns and prevention methods in diverse cultural and national settings to develop theories and strategies that can be applied across cultural and political boundaries

charles tittle (1997)

cautioned about limitations of integrated theory

• Necessity for compatible dependent variables 

• Agreement on the purpose and nature of theory 

• Difficulty in articulating interconnections of parts 

• Inadequacy of data for checking out problematic elements

authority conflict pathway to offending

stubborn behaviour progresses to authority avoidance

covert pathway to offending

young people become secretive and then progress to overt behaviour such as property damage

overt pathway to offending

when minor aggression progresses to more serious violence

opportunity reduction strategies

designed to prevent crime by minimizing the opportunities for criminal behaviour to occur

primary prevention

addresses the environmental conditions that promotes crime

secondary prevention

focuses on identifying potential offenders and targets (people, places, situations, etc) and intervening before a crime is committed

tertiary prevention

focuses on preventing individuals who have already violated the law from re-offending

social development approach

crime prevention strategy in which community based public education programs are used to inform people of the risks to their safety to encourage them to take direct appropriate steps to avoid becoming victims of crime