Psych 325: Module Ten, Close relationships and communication

According to the optimal matching model of social support, support is most effective when it:

Matches the specific needs or goals of the person seeking support

In their observational study of married couples discussing personal concerns, Cutrona et al. (2007) found that spouses were perceived as most sensitive when they:

Provided emotional support when their partner disclosed emotions

What effect did mismatched support following the disclosure of emotions have?

It was associated with lower marital satisfaction through reduced perceptions of partner sensitivity

According to Fletcher et al.'s discussion of relationship conflict, which two broad models of effective communication are contrasted in the chapter?

Honest communication model and good management model

In Chapter 11, Fletcher et al. review research on couples discussing relationship problems. What is the central question underlying the comparison between the honest communication model and the good management model?

Whether openly expressing negative thoughts and feelings or carefully managing them leads to better relationship outcomes

According to the chapter, why is it important to examine the links between communication and cognition in intimate relationships?

People's beliefs, expectations, and personality dispositions influence how they communicate and interact with their partners

According to Girme et al. (2013), what is meant by invisible support?

Support provided without the recipient recognizing that support was given

In their investigation of visible and invisible support in close relationships, Girme et al. (2013) found that visible support often produced which immediate consequence?

Short-term emotional costs because recipients may feel dependent, incompetent, or indebted

What was a major conclusion of Girme et al. (2013) regarding support in close relationships?

The effectiveness of support depends on balancing the short-term and long-term costs and benefits of support visibility.

What is meant by negative-direct communication in intimate relationships?

Directly expressing dissatisfaction, concerns, or desired changes to a partner

In a longitudinal study of romantic couples, Overall (2018) examined whether partners' negative-direct communication during conflict predicted relationship outcomes over time. What did the study find?

When used constructively to address important relationship issues, negative-direct communication could help sustain perceived commitment and relationship quality over time.

What is a key implication of Overall's (2018) findings for relationship functioning?

Openly addressing problems can sometimes strengthen relationships when concerns are communicated constructively.

According to Zee and Bolger (2019), what is the key difference between visible and invisible social support?

Visible support is recognized as help by the recipient, whereas invisible support is provided in a way that is not interpreted as help

In reviewing experimental and relationship research on support provision, Zee and Bolger (2019) concluded that invisible support is often beneficial because it:

Protects recipients' sense of competence and efficacy by avoiding negative self-evaluations associated with receiving help

According to Zee and Bolger's (2019) framework, when is visible support most likely to be beneficial?

When recipients are motivated to take action and make changes to their situation

According to Overall and McNulty, why is it difficult to determine whether conflict communication is beneficial or harmful for intimate relationships?

The effects of communication depend on factors such as the relationship context, the issue being discussed, and the partners involved.

In their review of research on conflict communication in intimate relationships, Overall and McNulty concluded that negative communication (e.g., criticism, confrontation, demands) is most likely to be beneficial when:

Important relationship problems need to be addressed and resolved, particularly when change is necessary.

What is a key implication of Overall and McNulty's review for understanding effective conflict management in relationships?

No single communication strategy is universally effective; effective communication depends on the circumstances and goals of the interaction.

Why is it important for psychologists to study close relationships, social support, and conflict behaviour?

They have significant effects on wellbeing, physical and mental health, and relationship functioning.

Which of the following is a key method used to investigate support and conflict behaviour in intimate relationships?

Using observational studies, self-report measures, and longitudinal research to examine couples' interactions

Which of the following correctly matches a type of support or conflict behaviour with an example?

Emotional support – comforting a partner who is feeling upset and listening to their concerns

According to research on social support, why is it important to evaluate the benefits and costs of different types of support?

Different types of support can help recipients in some situations but may create costs, such as feelings of dependence or reduced competence, in others.

Why is it important to consider the context when evaluating conflict behaviours in intimate relationships?

Different conflict behaviours can have both benefits and costs depending on factors such as the issue being discussed, the relationship context, and whether change is needed.

Based on research on social support and conflict communication, which approach is most likely to promote healthy relationship functioning?

Matching support to the recipient's needs and using communication strategies that fit the relationship context and goals.

According to the meta-analysis by Holt-Lunstad et al. (2010), what was the relationship between supportive social relationships and mortality?

Supportive social relationships predicted approximately a 50% increase in survival, with effects larger than some major health risk factors such as smoking and body mass index.

Why is social support considered critical for health and well-being?

It helps people cope with stressful events and supports the successful pursuit of personal goals, contributing to better psychological and physical health.

Why has a large body of relationship research focused on effective support and conflict resolution?

Close relationships can both enhance and harm well-being; a lack of support and high levels of conflict are associated with poorer health and well-being.

What are two main methods used to examine processes in intimate relationships?

Assessing couples' naturally occurring behaviour when one partner needs support or when couples experience conflict

In behavioural observation studies of intimate relationships, how are support and conflict behaviours typically assessed?

Couples are video recorded discussing a stressful challenge or relationship problem, and trained coders rate the behaviours displayed.

What is a key advantage of daily diary methods in relationship research?

They repeatedly capture real-life relationship experiences and responses as they naturally occur in everyday life.

What is a key disadvantage of daily diary methods in relationship research?

Participants may not accurately report their own behaviour and can have biased perceptions of their partner's behaviour.

In research on social support, who is the support provider?

The person who could provide support to their partner

In studies of social support, the support recipient is typically:

The person who may be experiencing a personal challenge and could benefit from support

Which of the following best describes emotional support?

Providing comfort, reassurance, and encouragement to help soothe distress and increase confidence

Which of the following is an example of practical support?

Providing advice, information, or tangible assistance to directly address a problem

What is a key benefit of both emotional and practical support, particularly emotional support?

They help recipients feel cared for and support their ability to cope with challenges.

What is a likely consequence of negative support behaviours such as criticism, blame, control, or invalidation when a partner needs support?

They impede recipients' coping, undermine relationship satisfaction, and increase the risk of future dissatisfaction and relationship dissolution.

Why is perceived support important in understanding the benefits of social support?

Recipients do not always perceive emotional and practical support as supportive, and it is perceived support that is most strongly linked to health and well-being benefits.

According to Cutrona et al. (2007), what happens when the type of support provided matches the support desired by the recipient?

Partners and relationships are evaluated more positively when support matches the recipient's expressed needs.

What did Cutrona et al. (2007) find about support that does not match a recipient's needs?

Support that does not match the type of support recipients seek may provide little benefit and can even be harmful, while negative support behaviours are perceived as unresponsive regardless of the support sought

According to self-determination theory and research on support visibility, why can highly visible, direct support sometimes have costs for recipients?

It can help recipients feel cared for and supported while simultaneously undermining their sense of competence and autonomy.

According to self-determination theory, what does competence refer to?

Feeling capable and confident in one's skills and abilities

According to self-determination theory, what does relatedness refer to?

Feeling loved, cared for, safe, and secure in relationships with others

According to self-determination theory, what does autonomy refer to?

Feeling free from others' control and influence and authentic in one's actions

How can visible support benefit recipients according to research on support visibility?

It helps recipients feel cared for and secure, satisfying relatedness needs and enhancing closeness and relationship satisfaction.

Why can highly visible, direct support sometimes undermine recipients' feelings of competence and autonomy?

It can signal that the recipient cannot cope alone, increase awareness of the stressor, and make the recipient feel burdensome or indebted.

Which of the following is an example of invisible support?

Discreetly completing household chores to reduce a stressed partner's workload without drawing attention to the support being provided.

What is a potential drawback of invisible support, according to Maisel and Gable (2009)?

It can be so subtle that recipients perceive their partner as uncaring or unresponsive, leading them to feel less loved and close.

Which of the following best describes invisible support?

Subtle, indirect, and covert support that de-emphasises who is providing and receiving support and frames the problem as a common experience rather than the recipient's issue

What did Girme et al. (2013) find about the effectiveness of visible support?

Visible support is more beneficial when recipients are highly distressed and need care and comfort, but may undermine competence and autonomy when recipients are low in distress.

According to Girme et al. (2013), what effect did visible support have when recipients were experiencing high levels of distress?

It was beneficial because recipients needed direct reassurance and felt discussions with their partner helped them pursue their goals more successfully.

According to Girme et al. (2013), what effect did visible support have when recipients were experiencing low levels of distress?

It had costs, with recipients feeling that discussions with their partner were less successful in helping them pursue their goals.

According to research on support visibility, when is invisible support likely to be most beneficial?

When competence and autonomy are the priority, allowing recipients to feel capable and independent while still receiving support.

What did Girme et al. (2019) find about the effectiveness of invisible support for people high in attachment avoidance?

Invisible support helped facilitate feelings of autonomy and relationship commitment by minimising the salience of dependence on others.

Why is understanding conflict communication important in close relationships?

Although conflict is a normal part of close relationships, high levels of unresolved conflict are linked to poorer health, lower well-being, greater depression, and increased risk of relationship dissolution.

According to relationship research, which of the following is considered a common source of conflict in couples' relationships?

Issues such as inadequate attention or affection, chores and responsibilities, jealousy and infidelity, control and dominance, future plans and money, and s*x

What types of issues are most commonly discussed in relationship communication studies examining conflict?

Problems such as insufficient affection, time spent together, sharing domestic responsibilities, mismatched sexual desire, power struggles, and financial disagreements

What does the term "phubbing" refer to in the context of close relationships?

A combination of "phone" and "snubbing," where a person focuses on their cellphone instead of their partner or friend, leading the other person to feel disregarded, ignored, or neglected

What is meant by couples "fighting over the way they fight"?

Couples experience conflict about how conflict is handled and communicated, in addition to the original issue being discussed.

Why do therapists consider dysfunctional communication to be one of the most difficult relationship problems to treat?

It interferes with couples' ability to effectively resolve conflicts and address other relationship problems.

Which of the following correctly matches the three major destructive conflict behaviours identified in couples' conflict discussions?

Hostility (criticism, put-downs, negative mind-reading, and expressions of disgust), Withdrawal (disengaging, avoiding, no response, glazed eye contact, physical distancing), and Invalidation (disagreement, denying responsibility, noncompliance, and interrupting)

Which of the following correctly matches the three major constructive conflict behaviours identified in couples' conflict discussions?

Facilitation (humour, positive mind-reading, affection, positive touch, smiling, and maintaining eye contact), Constructive problem-solving (describing problems neutrally, proposing solutions, and compromising), and Validation (agreement, approval, accepting responsibility, and complying)

What have hundreds of studies found about the relationship between conflict behaviours and relationship satisfaction?

Couples who engage in negative behaviours such as hostility and invalidation tend to be less satisfied and experience more problems, whereas couples who engage in constructive problem-solving and validation tend to be more satisfied.

What is a key limitation of the large body of research linking conflict behaviours to relationship satisfaction?

Most studies are cross-sectional, meaning behaviour and relationship satisfaction are measured at the same time, making it difficult to determine whether negative communication causes dissatisfaction or whether dissatisfied couples communicate more negatively.

What have longitudinal studies found about the effects of conflict behaviours on relationship satisfaction over time?

They have produced mixed findings, with some studies showing hostility and invalidation predict declines in satisfaction, while others find that hostility, criticism, and anger can predict improvements in satisfaction and that positivity and validation can sometimes undermine satisfaction.

Why might hostile conflict sometimes predict improvements in relationship satisfaction over time?

Directly confronting problems can communicate the seriousness of an issue and motivate partners to make needed changes, whereas excessive positivity may reduce pressure for change and allow problems to persist.

According to researchers, what two additions are needed to better understand how communication affects relationships over time?

Identifying the specific communication behaviours that convey the need for change and investment in problem resolution, and examining whether these behaviours actually promote problem resolution and communicate commitment over time.

According to contemporary models of conflict communication, what are the two key dimensions used to classify communication behaviours?

Valence (negative vs. positive) and directness (direct vs. indirect)

According to contemporary models of conflict communication, how are the different communication styles classified?

Positive-direct involves constructive problem-solving, positive-indirect involves facilitation and validation, negative-direct involves hostility and invalidation, and negative-indirect involves inducing guilt or sympathy

Which of the following best describes negative-direct communication during relationship conflict?

Expressing anger, hostility, and invalidation, criticising and blaming a partner for the problem, and directly demanding change

Which of the following best describes negative-indirect communication during relationship conflict?

Exaggerating expressions of hurt or sadness, conveying powerlessness, inducing guilt in a partner, and appealing to their obligations of love

Which of the following best describes positive-direct communication during relationship conflict?

Voicing problems and dissatisfaction in a rational manner, considering the causes and consequences of the issue, and exploring possible solutions

Which of the following best describes positive-indirect communication during relationship conflict?

Restraining negative reactions, expressing love, affection, humour, trust, and optimism, and softening conflict to promote closeness

Why can direct communication behaviours be beneficial for relationships during conflict?

They can motivate problem resolution and communicate that partners are committed to addressing and resolving relationship issues.

Why might positive-indirect communication behaviours have little effect on relationship outcomes?

They are relatively "invisible," meaning they may not clearly motivate problem resolution or communicate investment in addressing the issue.

What is a key conclusion from research on support and conflict communication?

The benefits and costs of different communication behaviours vary across important contexts and situations.

Why can both positive-direct and negative-direct communication predict greater relationship satisfaction over time?

They clearly communicate dissatisfaction, signal that a problem needs to be addressed, and motivate partners to take action, which can lead to greater problem resolution and improved relationship satisfaction over time

Why can both positive-direct and negative-direct communication signal relationship commitment?

They show that a person is invested enough to confront problems and push for change, and emotions such as anger can signal that important relationship needs and goals matter to them.

Why can positive-indirect communication sometimes be ineffective for resolving relationship problems?

It focuses on soothing conflict and maintaining closeness, which can leave partners unaware that a problem exists or that change is needed

What did Drigotas et al. (1995) find about positive-indirect versus positive-direct conflict behaviours?

Agreement that positive-indirect behaviours (e.g., forgiving, forgetting about the issue, remaining quietly loyal) were constructive was much lower than for positive-direct behaviours (e.g., suggesting solutions and compromising), and people viewed positive-indirect behaviours as less effective for resolving problems.

Why are positive-indirect behaviours often less effective at promoting problem resolution and relationship appreciation?

They are less salient, more ambiguous, and less visible, making partners less likely to recognise the problem, change their behaviour, or appreciate the communicator's efforts to sustain the relationship.

Why is it important to identify why different communication behaviours have different effects on relationships?

To understand the contexts in which different benefits and costs occur and to identify which behaviours are likely to be most beneficial for relationships in particular situations.

What is the primary risk associated with negative-direct communication in relationships?

It can escalate conflict, hurt partners, trigger defensive or retaliatory responses, undermine relationship satisfaction and stability, and potentially contribute to more serious aggressive behaviours over time.

According to research, when are negative-direct behaviours most likely to be beneficial in relationships?

When serious relationship problems need to be resolved, change is necessary, the communication is targeted at specific issues, and partners need evidence of commitment to the relationship.

According to research, when are negative-direct behaviours most likely to be costly for relationships?

When they resist a partner's attempts to improve the situation, are disproportionate to minor problems, target issues the partner cannot change, or are not tied to a specific problem, thereby worsening relationship difficulties and signalling a lack of care or commitment.

Why can negative-direct behaviour be harmful when it is used in response to minor relationship problems?

The level of hostility becomes disproportionate to the importance of the problem, causing the behaviour to signal a lack of care and commitment rather than concern about the relationship

Why can negative-direct behaviour be costly when it is not targeted at a specific problem or when the partner cannot change the issue?

It cannot effectively motivate problem resolution and may communicate low care, regard, and commitment toward the partner.

What did Overall (2018) find about the effects of agents' versus targets' negative-direct communication during conflict?

Agents' negative-direct communication showed benefits such as promoting problem resolution, whereas targets' negative-direct communication led partners to perceive them as less committed and was associated with declines in relationship satisfaction over time

According to the research, what is the most important take-home message regarding communication during relationship conflict?

Positive-direct communication is essential because it promotes problem resolution, conveys commitment, sustains relationship satisfaction, and avoids many of the downsides associated with negative-direct communication.

Which of the following best describes negative-indirect communication behaviours?

Expressing hurt and sadness in an indirect manner through exaggerated distress, conveying powerlessness, and attempting to induce guilt by appealing to a partner's obligations or love.

Why can negative-indirect communication behaviours be reinforced and continue to be used in relationships?

They can induce guilt in committed partners, prompting reassurance and helping individuals feel more secure in the relationship

What are the two major costs of negative-indirect communication in relationships?

Partners may become resentful about being pressured to provide reassurance and take responsibility, and the underlying problem often remains unresolved because attention shifts from the issue to soothing hurt feelings.

What is withdrawal in the context of relationship conflict?

Disengaging from interactions and psychologically or physically distancing oneself from a partner during conflict.

Why do many communication scholars consider withdrawal to be one of the most damaging conflict behaviours?

It invalidates a partner's experience, signals an unwillingness to be responsive, prevents problem resolution, conveys low care and commitment, and is associated with declining relationship satisfaction and a greater risk of relationship dissolution over time.

According to relationship research, what is central to maintaining close and satisfying relationships?

Flexibly adjusting behaviour and communication to the unique needs of the partner, the interaction, and the specific problem the couple is facing.