PSY3051 per cog psych exam cards

Problem Solving

Creating mental models of a problem and using them to find solutions.

Problem

A situation where there is a gap between the current state and the goal state.

Solution

An action or series of actions that transforms the current state into the goal state.

Wessell’s Four Stages of Problem Solving

Define problem, devise strategy, execute strategy, evaluate progress.

Define the Problem

Identifying the goal state, current state, and available actions.

Devise a Strategy

Selecting actions that may reduce the distance between current and goal states.

Execute the Strategy

Carrying out the intended actions.

Evaluate Progress

Measuring how close the current state is to the goal state after acting.

Well-Defined Problem

A problem where the current state, goal state, and available actions are clearly specified.

Ill-Defined Problem

A problem where information about the current state, goal state, or available actions is missing or unclear.

Mental Representation

The way beliefs, knowledge, and memories are stored in the mind.

Mental Representation of a Problem

Knowledge about a problem’s current state, goal state, and available actions.

Functional Fixedness

A mental block against using an object in a new way needed to solve a problem. Eg no hammer, use a book

Reducing Functional Fixedness

Training people to think of alternative uses for objects.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure guaranteed to solve a problem.

Heuristic

A fast rule-of-thumb strategy that may help solve a problem but is not guaranteed to work.

Generate-Test Heuristic

Repeatedly generating possible solutions and testing whether they work. Eg lock combinations

Difference Reduction Heuristic

Choosing actions that most reduce the gap between the current and goal state.

Subgoals

Intermediate states between the current state and goal state used to break down complex problems.

Means-End Analysis

Identifying differences between the current and goal state and selecting actions to reduce them.

Incubation

Taking a break from a problem to help find a later solution.

Decision Making

The cognitive process of choosing between actions or alternatives.

Preference-Based Decision Making

Choosing between actions based on preferred outcomes.

Perceptual Decision Making

Choosing between interpretations of sensory information.

Expected Utility Theory (EUT)

Theory stating people choose the option with the greatest expected overall benefit.

Acts (EUT)

The possible actions a decision-maker can take.

Consequences (EUT)

The possible outcomes of actions.

States (EUT)

Factors outside a person’s control that influence outcomes.

Utility

The subjective value or usefulness of an outcome.

Expected Utility

The overall value of a choice based on probabilities and utilities of outcomes.

Rationality in EUT

Choosing the option that maximises expected utility.

Prospect Theory

Theory stating humans do not always make perfectly rational decisions and evaluate outcomes relative to a reference point.

Reference Point

The standard people compare outcomes against when judging gains or losses.

Risk Aversion

Preferring a certain outcome over a risky outcome with equal expected value.

Loss Aversion

Losses are felt more strongly than equivalent gains.

Framing Effect

People make different decisions depending on whether outcomes are framed as gains or losses.

Endowment Effect

People overvalue things they already own.

Default Option Bias

People tend to stick with the pre-selected or default option.

Affect Heuristic

Making decisions based on emotions rather than careful reasoning.

Judgment

The mental process of forming beliefs and deciding what is likely true.

Availability Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging something based on how similar it is to a typical example.

Anchoring and Adjustment

Relying heavily on the first piece of information received and adjusting from it.

Probability Distortion

Overestimating rare events and underestimating common ones.

Illusory Correlation

Believing two things are related when they are not.

Confirmation Bias

Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Base Rate Neglect

Ignoring the general probability of an event occurring.

Small Sample Bias

Drawing conclusions from too little data.

Non-Representative Sample Bias

Drawing conclusions from a sample that does not accurately reflect the population.

Reasoning

The process of drawing conclusions from information.

Deductive Reasoning

Using a general rule to reach a specific conclusion that must be true if premises are true.

Valid Argument

An argument where the conclusion logically follows from the premises.

Conditional Reasoning

Deductive reasoning using IF → THEN statements.

Modus Ponens

If P then Q; P occurred; therefore Q occurred.

Modus Tollens

If P then Q; Q did not occur; therefore P did not occur.

Inductive Reasoning

Using specific observations to form a general conclusion that is probably true.

Abductive Reasoning

Choosing the most likely explanation for observations.

Procedural Memory

Long-term memory for skills and actions learned through practice.

Motor Learning

The process where movements become faster, smoother, and more accurate through practice.

Learning

long-lasting change in behaviour caused by experience Example - touching a hot stove makes you more careful next time.

Verbal-Cognitive Stage

Beginner stage of motor learning requiring high attention, mental effort, and feedback.

Associative Stage

Practice stage where movements become more consistent and refined.

Autonomous Stage

Expert stage where skills become automatic and require little conscious attention.

Deliberate Practice

Focused and effortful practice aimed at improving weaknesses.

Consolidation

The process that strengthens and stabilises procedural memories after practice.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt structure and function through experience.

Structural Neuroplasticity

Physical changes in brain structure caused by learning and experience. Eg new neural connections former during learning a skill like piano

Microstructural Neuroplasticity

Changes in neurons and synapses occurring over hours to days.

Macrostructural Neuroplasticity

Changes in overall brain structure and volume. occurring over weeks to months.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons through repeated activation.

Long-Term Depression (LTD)

Weakening of synaptic connections between neurons.

Memory

Change in the brain/mind following experience involving encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Patient H.M.

Had hippocampal damage after surgery for epilepsy and could not form new declarative memories, but could still learn new procedural/motor skills. Demonstrated that declarative and procedural memory rely on different brain systems.

Forgetting Curve

Memory declines rapidly over time without rehearsal.

Serial Position Effect

Best recall for first (primacy) and last (recency) items in a list, worst recall in middle

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory for personal life events linked to identity.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memory for emotional events.

Eyewitness Memory

Memory for witnessed events, prone to distortion and false memories.

Multi-Store Model

Memory system consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Briefly holds sensory information, large capacity short duration

Iconic Memory

visual sensory memory less than 1 secound

Echoic Memory

Short auditory sensory memory lasting 2-4 secs

Short-Term Memory (STM)

holds limited information for a short period, Duration – 15–20 secs, Capacity – 5–9 items (Miller’s Law)

Miller’s Law

STM capacity is around 5–9 items.

Rehearsal and chunking

rehearsal - Repeating info to keep it in memory longer, Chunking-Grouping info into meaningful units to increase capacity.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it in memory longer.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to increase memory capacity.

Working Memory

Limited-capacity system for temporarily storing and manipulating information.

Difference Between STM and Working Memory

STM only stores information, while working memory stores and manipulates information.

Phonological Loop

Working memory component processing verbal and auditory information.

Phonological Similarity Effect

Similar-sounding words are harder to remember.

Word-Length Effect

Shorter words are easier to remember than long words.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Working memory component storing and manipulating visual and spatial information.

Central Executive

Controls attention and coordinates working memory systems.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from working memory and long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Large-capacity memory system with long duration.

Types of LTM Explicit Memory

Conscious episodic (personal experiences ) and semantic (world facts) memory recall

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memory retrieval.