social psych test 5

Aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to another

Physical Aggression

hurting someone’s body

Social Aggression

insults, threats, gossip, and social exclusion

Hostile Aggression:

hurting someone for the sake of hurting them

Instrumental Aggression

hurting someone to accomplish another goal

The “Brutish” View

The idea that aggression is inborn, instinctive, adaptive, and, thus, inevitable

Aggression is thought to build up over time, eventually reaching a threshold where it must release:

Unless it is released by appropriate stimulus (catharsis)

Otherwise, it builds up to until a violent outburst occurs (rumination  acts of aggression)

This view is outdated and lacks empirical support

Rumination

obsessive thinking characterized by excessive, repetitive thoughts or themes that may interfere with or interrupt other forms of mental and physical and activity

Catharsis

the release of aggressive urges in a socially acceptable form (e.g. watching a boxing match or playing a violent video game

Mating Aggression

that which occurs during competition for a mate/to gain a mate’s favor

Status-Based Aggression

that which occurs in response to threats (real or perceived) to one’s position in the social hierarchy

Neurology

Prefrontal Cortex Functions

Attention

Planning

Working Memory

Expression of emotions

Social behavior

Not fully developed until age 25

 Genetics

Breeding for trait expression

Neither “bad” genes nor a “bad” environment alone predict later aggressiveness

Nature & Nurture interact

Biochemistry

Alcohol Consumption results in:

Decreased behavioral inhibition (opposite of impulsivity)

Decreased evaluation apprehension

Predisposition to identify ambiguous events as provocations

Nutritional factors are sometimes correlated to aggression

Excess sugar  increased aggression

Correlations between testosterone and aggressive behavior

Related to developmental stages, prefrontal cortex, and epigenetic influences

MAOA-L Gene

 linked to aggression when observed in populations with a history of early childhood maltreatment

Frustration Aggression Theory

Anything that prevents an individual from achieving a goal, accessing a resource, or contacting a reinforcer predisposes them, temporarily, to aggressive behavior

Displacement

Frustration aggression is redirected from the source of frustration to another target, usually a safer or more socially acceptable one

Relative Deprivation

Social comparisons result in frustration aggression due to perceived inequality of access to desired resources (social status, money, prestige)

Social Learning Theory

acquisition of behavior patterns is attributed to the observation of role models, imitation, and social consequences for those actions

associated with learned agression

Aggression in the Media

Models of violent behavior increase likelihood that others will imitate

Frequency of violence seen on TV distorts public perception of the prevalence of violence

Desensitization

reduction in emotional or physical reactivity to a stimulus that is achieved by repeated exposure to the stimulus and sometimes counterconditioning

Aversive Stimuli

Situational Predictors

• Pain/Discomfort

• Arousal

• Stress

• Noise

• Heat

Group Influence

Situational Predictors

• Conformity

• Polarization

• Deindividualization

• Diffusion of responsibility

The Need to Belong

Desire to bond with others in enduring relationships with ongoing positive interactions

Ostracism

Social exclusion

The absence of belonging

Associated with:

• Increased alcohol consumption

• Increased junk food consumption

• Decreased inhibition

• Increase tendency for self defeating behavior

• Increased tendency for aggression

• Increased tendency for suicidal ideation

Proximity

Geographic/physical distance

Anticipation fuels liking to an extent, but too much time between interactions tends to decrease interest

Routine interactions allow for anticipation

Functional Distance

how often people cross paths

Exposure

Encourage those struggling to connect with others to put themselves out there, maintain their autonomy, and allow their friends & partners to do the same

Too much can backfire

The Mere Exposure Effect

increased preference for a stimulus that occurs as a result of repeated exposure to it

Physical Attraction

Subjective preference for physical features in a given place and time

Stable Physical Attraction

Preference for symmetry (to an extent)

Secondary sex characteristics

Evolutionary indicators of reproductive health

Variable Physical Attraction

Cultural ideals for physical shape and features

Averageness

Matching Phenomenon

the tendency for people to choose a partner with roughly equivalent attractiveness to their own

Physical-Attractiveness Stereotype

Preconceived idea that attractive people possess socially desirable traits

Social Comparisons

Attraction may be temporarily disrupted by exposure to certain stimuli (priming)

Attraction based on stable traits/characteristics tends to be more resilient to change and, consequently, longer-lasting

Similarity

Because humans tend to like that which is familiar/similar to themselves, a self- perpetuating cycle of growing closeness and attraction may develop between friends/partners

Attribution

Flattery can increase liking if:

• No ulterior motive is evident

• The person receiving the compliment doesn’t see it as a lie

• The compliment is attributed to attraction or appreciation

• The person receiving the compliment isn’t reactant to flattery as a form of persuasion

Reward Theory of Attraction

The idea that we like those who reward/reinforce our behavior and those that have been paired with reinforcers in the past

Emotions

Complex reaction patterns involving experiential, behavioral, physiological, and cognitive elements by which an individual responds to stimuli/events in their environment

Experiential Emotions

Subjective perception of environmental events/stimuli that trigger emotional responses

Behavioral Emotions

Overt responses to stimuli and explicit affects (facial expressions) of emotional experience

Physiological Emotions

Physical arousal: changes in factors like heart rate and perspiration in contiguity with emotional experience

Cognitive Emotions

Interpretation of stimuli, behavior, and arousal that results in labeling the specific emotion

James-Lange Theory

Stimuli elicit changes in behavior and affect (behavioral) which we then interpret as a specific emotion (cognitive)

“I’m scared because I’m running.”

• First: your body reacts (heart racing, running, sweating)

• Then: you interpret those physical changes as emotion

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Environmental events produce simultaneous changes in two independent brain structures (physiological) that lead to emotional experience (cognitive) in the thalamus and emotional expression (behavioral) in the cortex

I’m running and I’m scared at the same time.”

• The stimulus (like seeing something dangerous) triggers:

  • physical response (running)

  • emotional feeling (fear)

Schachter-Singer Theory

AKA Two-Factor Theory: Stimuli elicit physiological arousal which we then interpret as a specific emotion (cognitive) based on the environmental context before we decide how to respond

“I’m running, and I think about it, so I label it as fear.”

• First: physical arousal (running, heart racing)

• Then: you interpret the situation (cognitive label)

• Emotion = body reaction + your explanation of it

Triangular Theory of Love

characterization of love is based on three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment

Intimacy

closeness, connectedness, vulnerability, and bond

Passion

romance, physical attraction, sexual consummation

Commitment

motivation to maintain love and the relationship

Romantic Love

prominence of intimacy and passion but absence of commitment

Companionate Love

prominence of intimacy and commitment but absence of passion

Fatuous Love

prominence of passion and commitment but absence of intimacy

Consummate Love

all components present

Self-Disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to another. It is a type of emotional vulnerability

Disclosure Reciprocity

Tendency for one’s vulnerability and self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner

Dismissive

tendency to view oneself as worthy of love and competent at it while viewing others as untrustworthy or undependable in relationships

Fearful

tendency to doubt the worthiness and competence of both self and others

Preoccupied

tendency to doubt one’s worthiness and competence, despite the belief that others are both worthy and competent

Secure

belief in the worthiness and competence of both self and others

Relationship Equity

outcomes and rewards from a relationship are proportionate to contributions

Criticism

ad hominem attacks of your partner’s actions, personality, and/or character

Consists of shaming and attacking

Defensiveness

Responses to a partner’s concerns that dodge accountability, allow one to play the victim, or get the perceived attacker to back off

Contempt

Assumption of moral superiority over your partner with an intent to insult/abuse

Stonewalling

withdrawing from interaction and avoiding contact/conflict