Ethics final

Laplace Core Thesis

No free will everything is determined by prior causes and laws of nature

Laplace Prediction Idea

If all initial conditions and laws were known the future could be predicted

Laplace Limitation

We cannot predict due to lack of complete information

Laplace Demon

A hypothetical being that knows everything and predicts all events

Laplace Problem

Undermines moral responsibility

Ortega Ontological Centaur

Humans are partly determined and partly free

Ortega Freedom

Freedom exists within constraints not absolute

Ortega Responsibility

We are responsible because we can choose within limits

Ring of Gyges Story

A ring gives invisibility allowing actions without consequences

Ring of Gyges Argument

People act morally only because they are observed

Ring of Gyges Conclusion

Justice is valued for consequences not intrinsically

Three Types of Goods

Intrinsic intrinsic plus instrumental and instrumental only

Hobbes State of Nature

Life is solitary poor nasty brutish and short

Hobbes Morality

We are moral because of fear and need for authority

Hobbes Key Idea

Covenants without the sword are meaningless

Hume Morality

Humans are naturally sympathetic

Hume Reason for Morality

Morality benefits society and relationships

Hobbes vs Hume

Hobbes fear based Hume empathy based

Consequentialism Definition

Right action is based on outcomes

Deontology Definition

Right action follows duty or rules

Virtue Ethics Definition

Focus on character not just actions

Bentham Core Idea

Maximize pleasure minimize pain

Bentham Pleasure View

All pleasures are equal

Bentham Calculus

Measures intensity duration certainty of pleasure

Mill Improvement

Distinguishes higher and lower pleasures

Mill Key Idea

Quality of pleasure matters

Effective Altruism

Doing the most good with measurable impact

Effective Altruism Criticism

Can ignore emotional or relational values

Hypothetical Imperative

If you want something do a certain action

Categorical Imperative

Act regardless of desires or outcomes

Kant Universal Law

Act only on maxims that can be universalized

Kant Humanity Formula

Treat people as ends never merely as means

Korsgaard Murder Case

Lying is justified to protect autonomy

Hays Native Companion

Failing to act allows harm and violates humanity

Aristotle Virtue

Developed through habit

Aristotle Function

Human good is rational activity done well

Doctrine of Mean

Virtue lies between excess and deficiency

MacIntyre Internal Goods

Specific to a practice like skill in chess

MacIntyre External Goods

Money fame status

MacIntyre Problem

External goods corrupt practices

Mill Harm Principle

Restrict freedom only to prevent harm to others

Mill Against Paternalism

State should not protect people from themselves

Rawls Veil of Ignorance

Design society without knowing your position

Rawls Equality Principle

Equal rights for all

Rawls Difference Principle

Inequalities must benefit the least advantaged

Nozick Entitlement Theory

Justice depends on acquisition and transfer

Nozick Taxation View

Taxation is like forced labor

Nozick Three Principles

Acquisition transfer rectification

Nussbaum Capabilities

Justice requires real ability to act

Freedom From vs To

Freedom from interference vs ability to achieve goals

Ayer Emotivism

Moral statements express feelings not facts

Yay Boo Theory

Moral claims are expressions of approval or disapproval

Problem Emotivism

Makes moral disagreement seem irrational

De Beauvoir Other

Women are defined as the Other

De Beauvoir Idea

Gender is socially constructed

Gilligan Care Ethics

Morality based on relationships and care

Heinz Dilemma

Boys use logic girls use relationships

Hooks Intersectionality

Feminism must include race and class

Roxane Gay Imperfect Feminism

You can be feminist without being perfect

Arendt Responsibility

People remain responsible under oppressive systems

Arendt Insight

Ordinary people commit evil

Havel Green Grocer

Small acts of conformity sustain oppression

Living in Truth

Refusing to conform exposes injustice

EU AI Approach

Preventative risk based regulation

US AI Approach

Innovate first regulate later

China AI Approach

Control and stability through regulation

Crawford Extractivism

AI relies on natural resources labor and data extraction

Laplace Determinism Thesis

All events are fully determined by prior states and laws of nature leaving no room for free will

Laplace Argument Structure

If every state follows necessarily from prior conditions and laws then the future is fixed and predictable in principle

Laplace Demon Explained

A hypothetical intelligence that knows all variables and laws and can predict the entire past and future

Laplace Epistemic vs Metaphysical

We cannot predict due to lack of knowledge but reality itself is still determined

Laplace Moral Problem

If no one could have done otherwise it becomes unclear how responsibility or blame is justified

Ortega Ontological Centaur Explained

Humans are part nature determined by biology and part project capable of choosing their life

Ortega Freedom Concept

Freedom is choosing within constraints not total independence from causation

Ortega Responsibility Claim

We are responsible because we must choose how to respond to our circumstances

Laplace vs Ortega

Laplace denies real freedom Ortega defends limited but meaningful freedom

Ring of Gyges Deeper Point

Tests whether justice is intrinsically good or only instrumentally valuable

Gyges Psychological Claim

Humans act justly only due to fear of punishment or desire for reputation

Gyges Challenge to Ethics

If morality disappears without consequences then it is not truly valued

Plato Response Goal

Show that justice benefits the soul itself not just external rewards

Three Goods Clarified

Intrinsic goods valued for themselves mixed goods for themselves and results instrumental goods only for results

Example Three Goods

Pleasure intrinsic health mixed money instrumental

Hobbes State of Nature Logic

Without authority individuals compete for survival leading to fear and conflict

Hobbes Reason for Morality

We agree to rules to escape chaos and ensure self preservation

Hobbes Moral Motivation

Primarily fear and rational self interest

Hume Moral Psychology

Humans naturally feel sympathy and care about others

Hume Moral Motivation

Morality arises from emotional concern and social usefulness

Hobbes vs Hume Core Dispute

Whether morality is imposed externally or arises internally

Consequentialism Core Principle

Right actions maximize overall value or good outcomes

Consequentialism Key Feature

Only consequences ultimately determine moral worth

Deontology Core Principle

Right actions follow rules or duties regardless of outcomes

Deontology Key Feature

Intentions and principles matter more than results

Virtue Ethics Core Principle

Morality is about developing good character traits

Virtue Ethics Key Feature

Focus on who you are not just what you do

Bentham Utility Principle

Actions are right if they promote happiness and wrong if they produce pain

Bentham Hedonic Calculus

Evaluates pleasure by intensity duration certainty extent and other factors

Bentham Equality of Pleasures

All pleasures count equally regardless of type

Mill Higher vs Lower Pleasures

Intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to physical ones

Mill Improvement over Bentham

Introduces qualitative differences not just quantity

Utilitarianism Main Strength

Provides clear decision procedure based on maximizing happiness