personality psych - exam 3

humanistic tradition

emphasizes the personal worth of the individual and the importance of human values

phenomenology

psychologically more important than the world itself; one’s conscious experience of the world; everything a person hears, feels, and thinks

existential crisis

period questioning life’s purpose, meaning, and value

thrown-ness

• impt basis of experience

• being thrown into modern society is particularly difficult bc the world seems to have no overarching meaning or purpose

• religion plays a small role in creating meaning and purpose

angst

• anguish: everyone feels this bc choices are never perfect, and lead to both good and bad outcomes

• forlornness (desolate, lonely, sad, forsaken): bc each person must make their own choices

• despair: bc of the awareness that many outcomes are beyond control

optimistic toughness

existential courage; psychological framework combining resilience with a positive outlook, enabling individuals to manage adversity, maintain motivation, and achieve goals despite challenges

living in bad faith

ignoring the existential questions and ignoring our moral imperative

authentic existence

coming to terms w existence; being honest, insightful, and morally correct; will not relieve loneliness and unhappiness

terror management

posits that human behavior is driven by an unconscious, deep-seated fear of mortality, which causes anxiety managed by embracing cultural worldviews, enhancing self-esteem, and fostering close relationships

Erich Fromm

proposed dialectical humanism

dialectical humanism

• Reconciles the biological, driven side of human beings and the pressure of societal structure

• struggle between free-will and determinism → believes ppl can transcend these forces thru free will - transcendence is a need to become creative

self-actualization

to become everything that one is capable of becoming; comes from unconditional positive regard

self-discrepencies

self-esteem is defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves; comes from conditional positive regard

physiological needs

breathing, food, water, sex, seep, homeostasis, excretion

safety needs

security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property

belongingness needs

friendship, family, sexual intimacy

esteem needs

self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others

self-actualization needs

morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts

peak experiences

transcend the self; be at one with the world

B-motives

“being-level”; self-actualization

D-motives

“deficiency needs”; all other needs but self-actualization

metapathologies

“sickness of the soul”; depression, alienation, cynicism

fully functioning person

individual in a continuous process of "becoming," embracing personal growth and self-actualization

conditions of worth

internalized standards, often adopted from caregivers, that suggest an individual is only worthy of love and acceptance if they act, feel, or think in specific ways

conditional positive regard

act of providing warmth, love, or acceptance only when a person meets specific standards, behaviors, or expectations

unconditional positive regard

foundational, nonjudgmental acceptance and support of a person regardless of what they say or do

positive self-regard

ability to value, respect, and accept oneself unconditionally, separating personal worth from specific behaviors or mistakes

distortion

to get conditional positive regard but still feel anxiety

client-centered therapy

contributed therapeutic technique; empathy + positive regard + genuineness

empathy

ability to recognize, understand, and share the emotions and perspectives of others

resacrilizing

being willing to see the sacred, the eternal, the symbolic; instill the world human values such as joy and wonder

desacrilizing

defense mechanism; kids have desacralized sex

happiness

stable traits like low neuroticism, high extraversion, and high conscientiousness are major predictors of long-term subjective well-being

hedonic

focuses on the pursuit of pleasure, positive affect, and life satisfaction

eudaimonic

focuses on flourishing through meaning, purpose, and self-actualization, rather than mere pleasure

hedonic treadmill

well-cited study showing that ppl who had befallen great fortune (lottery winners) or great tragedy (recent paraplegics) returned to their preexisting levels of happiness within a year following the event

According to Carl Rogers, the difficulties in functioning are caused by the lack of __________ by others, starting at birth.

 

A. ego development

 

B. unconscious conflict

 

C. unconditional acceptance

 

D. conditional acceptance

C. unconditional acceptance

Even if two people experience the same event differently, the objectively correct interpretation should determine their psychological outcome.

Which response best reflects this statement?

 

A. This is correct because objective reality determines behavior regardless of perception

 

B. This is incorrect because behavior is driven primarily by unconscious processes, not perception

 

C. This is incorrect because construal, not objective reality, forms the basis of lived experience and action

 

D. This is correct only when individuals lack free will

C. This is incorrect because construal, not objective reality, forms the basis of lived experience and action

Angst can be analyzed as three separate sensations. __________ stems from an individual’s awareness that his or her choices will never be perfect; __________ relates to feeling alone in the universe; and __________ comes from feeling unable to change crucial aspects of the world.

 

A. forlornness; anguish; despair

 

B. despair; forlornness; anguish

 

C. forlornness; despair; anguish

 

D. anguish; forlornness; despair

D. anguish; forlornness; despair

When it comes to defining happiness, modern humanistic psychologists distinguish the two types of well-being as involving seeking a deeper meaning to life __________, and __________ involving maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain,  

 

A. hedonic; eudaimonic

 

B. eudaimonic; hedonic

 

C. unconditional positive regard; conditions of worth

 

D. flow; mindfulness

B. eudaimonic; hedonic

________ psychology is based on the premise that to understand a person, you must understand their unique view of reality.

 

A. Psychoanalytic

 

B. Existential

 

C. Humanistic

 

D. Positive

C. Humanistic

A fully functioning person

 

A. has met physiological and safety needs.

 

B. has achieved self-actualization.

 

C. rejects experiences that are incongruent with that person's goals.

 

D. is moving towards self-actualization.

D. is moving towards self-actualization.

The courage to face mortality and the apparent meaninglessness of life is called ________ by existential philosophers.

 

A. optimistic toughness

 

B. autotelic existence

 

C. angst

 

D. self-actualization

A. optimistic toughness

How is free will actually achieved?

 

A. By escaping biological and social constraints entirely

 

B. By choosing one’s construal of present experience

 

C. By maximizing rational decision-making across time

 

D. By aligning behavior with objective reality

B. By choosing one’s construal of present experience

If one does not try to reach self-actualization, Maslow would classify the individual as having __________

 

A. unconditional positive regard

 

B. conditions of worth

 

C. metapathology

 

D. sacralization

C. metapathology

Lily pursues wealth despite finding her work meaningless. Which is the MOST precise explanation?

 

A. She is maximizing deficiency needs over being needs

 

B. She is engaging in bad faith by avoiding existential responsibility

 

C. She is experiencing incongruence due to lack of unconditional positive regard

 

D. She is demonstrating hedonic adaptation

B. She is engaging in bad faith by avoiding existential responsibility

culture

shared system of meaning that provide the standards for perceiving, believing, evaluating, communicating, and acting among those who share a language, historic period, and geographic location; the way ppl understand their world and make sense of it through a shared system of meaning

acculturation

the process of partially or fully acquiring a new cultural outlook

enculturation

the process of socialization through which an individual acquires their native culture, mainly early in life

cross-cultural differences

• It is important to examine psychological differences between cultures because misunderstandings can lead to conflict and even war

• theory and data developed in one culture might not be applicable in another

• understanding how other peoples’ view reality can expand our understanding of the world.

generalizability

the extent that research findings developed in one culture hold true across diff cultures and populations

directness vs indirectness

US and Germany —> directness is valued and seen as a sign of honesty

Japan and South Korea —> directness may be seen as rude or disrespectful, indirect communication is preferred to maintain harmony

eye contact

Western —> eye contact is a sign of confidence and attentiveness

Asian and African cultures —> tm eye contact (esp w someone of higher status) can be seen as challenging or disrespectful

personal space

North Americans and Northern Europeans —> value larger personal space bubble

Latin American and Middle Eastern —> standing close is a sign of warmth and friendliness

collectivist

regard society and relations w others as more important; interdependence

individualistic

regard individual experience and gain as more important; independence

experience emotions in cultures

• collectivistic cultures spend more time in social interactions that are more intimate

• individualistic cultures → report more self-focused emotions; focus on achievement of pleasure or reward

• collectivistic cultures → report more other-focused emotions; focus on avoiding loss of respect

culture of honor

• high honor is more common when laws and police are weak and nonexistent and people must protect themselves, their families, and their property

• important to not appear vulnerable bc this could put the person at risk

cultures of face

• high face is common in societies w stable hierarchies based on cooperation

• high motivation to protect ones and other’s social image

• high respect for authority figures

• avoidance of controversy

cultures of dignity

• belief that individuals are valuable in their own right and this value does not come from what others think of them

• individuals who more strongly accept the cultural norms are more likely to behave in ways consistent w cultural dimensions

• tend to be found in market economies w equal exchange of goods

item response theory

patterns of responding can differ across cultures; models relationship between an individual’s latent ability and probability of correctly answering specific items

holistic thinking

explaining events in context and seeking to integrate divergent points of view vs explaining events in isolation and setting divergent points of view against each other

• East Asians are more holistic than Americans

• Japanese and Chinese are more willing than Americans to describe themselves in contradictory terms

independent thinking

controversial area; difference may be due to culture suppressing self-expression; ability to think and talk at the same time or to the importance placed on learning abt an area before attempting to formulate new ideas or ask questions

universal values

10 potentially global values that can be organized in terms of 2 dimensions: openness to change vs conservatism, and transcendence vs self-enhancement

ecological approach

ecology → culture → socialization → personality → behavior

ethnocentrism

observations of other cultures will be influenced by the observer’s own cultural background

outgroup homogenity bias

bias to see members of groups to which one does not belong as similar

cultural relativism

principle of understanding a person’s beliefs and values based on their own culture rather than judging them against the criteria of another

bicultural identity integration

continuum along which ppl w two cultural backgrounds differ in the extent to which they see themselves as members of a combined joint culture that integrates aspects of both cultures vs experiencing conflict and stress from having 2 cultures and being unsure abt which one they rly belong to

universal human condition

regardless of culture, everybody everywhere must exist, work, relate to other ppl, and ultimately die; encompasses the essential, shared experiences of being human

linguistic relativity hypothesis

language determines (or at least influences) the way we think; predicts that ppl of diff cultures, who speak diff languages, must think in diff ways

Western cultures are more frequently seen as __________, whereas Eastern cultures are seen as __________, categories that often center on different definitions of the __________.

 

A. individualistic; integrated; mind and body

 

B. individualistic; collectivist; self

 

C. collectivist; individualistic; self

 

D. isolated; collectivist; mind and body

B. individualistic; collectivist; self

_____ are more likely to respond to insults with aggression.

 

A. people from independent cultures

 

B. US Southerners

 

C. people from collectivist cultures

 

D. US Northerners

B. US Southerners

What is an aspect of bicultural identity integration (BII)?

 

A. whether or not the two cultures include different languages

 

B. the degree to which two cultures are geographically close to one another versus cultures that are geographically distant

 

C. the degree to which bicultural individuals see their two cultures as distinct from each other as opposed to overlapping

 

D. none of the above

C. the degree to which bicultural individuals see their two cultures as distinct from each other as opposed to overlapping

A researcher collects a large set of personality descriptors from everyday language in a non-Western culture and then statistically groups them based on patterns of co-occurrence. Which step specifically reflects the core purpose of factor analysis in creating endogenous personality structures?

 

A. Translating existing Big Five items and testing for measurement invariance across cultural groups

 

B. Identifying clusters of traits that covary to reveal underlying personality dimensions within that culture

 

C. Comparing mean trait levels across cultures to determine whether universality or specificity is supported

 

D. Eliminating culturally unique descriptors to ensure comparability with established Western trait models

B. Identifying clusters of traits that covary to reveal underlying personality dimensions within that culture

A student observes that people from one culture describe themselves using many trait terms, while people from another culture use fewer trait descriptors but emphasize roles and relationships. What is the best interpretation?

 

A. The second culture lacks a developed personality structure compared to the first

 

B. Personality is less important in cultures that use fewer trait descriptors

 

C. Cultures differ in how personality is conceptualized and expressed

 

D. Trait-based personality models are invalid in cultures with fewer descriptors

C. Cultures differ in how personality is conceptualized and expressed

The concept of 'dignity' in cultural contexts most likely leads to which of the following behaviors?

 

A. Quick retaliation against insults to protect one's honor.

 

B. Preservation of social image and avoidance of controversy.

 

C. The belief in the intrinsic value of individuals regardless of others' opinions.

 

D. Close physical proximity in social interactions to express warmth.

C. The belief in the intrinsic value of individuals regardless of others' opinions.

The American South has a culture that involves elaborate displays of mutual respect. This idea is called the ________.

 

A. culture of honor

 

B. culture of respect

 

C. culture of dignity

 

D. customs of face

A. culture of honor

Why is the United States one of the only countries which includes positive emotions in the factor of extraversion? 

 

A. People who reach the American Dream are the happiest.

 

B. People in the United States are happier than people in other countries.

 

C. The United States is spread out, therefore it is advantageous to be extraverted to find support in different areas of the country.

 

D. College students in the United States are happier than students in other countries.

C. The United States is spread out, therefore it is advantageous to be extraverted to find support in different areas of the country.

According to the ecological approach, differences in ecology generate differences in ________, which in turn shapes ________.

 

A. behavior; personality

 

B. culture; socialization

 

C. socialization; culture

 

D. personality; culture

B. culture; socialization

Cultures of face emerge in societies that ________.

 

A. believe individuals are valuable in their own right and this value does not come from what others think of them

 

B. are stable hierarchies based on cooperation

 

C. have societies with weak forces of civilization

 

D. laws and police are weak or nonexistent

B. are stable hierarchies based on cooperation

behavior psychology

personality is the sum of an individual’s interaction w the environment; not traits or types but a collection of learned behaviors

habituation

simplest form of behavior change as a result of experience; how to maintain the intensity of the original response

law of effect

responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are not

operant conditioning

behavior is shaped by its consequences

positive reinforcement

inc desired behaviors by adding a reward following the action; ex: giving money

negative reinforcement

inc desired behaviors by removing a stimulus following the action; ex: take away chores

positive punishment

dec behaviors by presenting a stimulus following the action; ex: give chores

negative punishment

dec behaviors by removing a stimulus following the action; ex: take away money

shaping

using reinforcements to guide an animal or person gradually toward a specific behavior; by reinforcing successive approx of the target response, you can shape a new behavior

partial reinforcement

operant response is more enduring and more resistant to extinction when reinforced on a partial basis rather than a continuous basis

little albert

classically conditioned child to fear rats

stimulus-response associations

stimulus becomes linked to a particular behavioral response through conditioning

walden two

utopian novel detailing a fictional intentional community designed using behavioral engineering; promotes happiness, productivity, and equality thru positive reinforcement, environmental control, and shared labor

social learning theory

people learn new behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions by observing others within a social context

expectancy value theory

learning depends on its reinforcement value; ppl differ in their expectations for reinforcement, some believe they are in control of outcomes whereas others do not

internal locus of control

generalized expectancies that reinforcing events are under one’s control, and that one is responsible for major life outcomes

external locus of control

generalized expectancies that events are outside of one’s control

generalized expectancy

general beliefs abt whether anything you do is likely to make a difference

specific expectancy

belief that a certain behavior, at a certain time and place, will lead to a specific outcome