All AP chemistry flaws

What are the small 5 ions

Chromate (CrO₄²⁻), Hydroxide (OH⁻), Acetate (C₂H₃O₂⁻), Permanganate (MnO₄⁻), Ammonium (NH₄⁺)

What are the 3 strong acids with polyatomics?

Nitric Acid (HNO₃), Sulfuric Acid (H₂SO₄), Perchloric Acid (HClO₄)

What are the 3 strong bases?

RbOH, CsOH, Ba(OH)₂

When is the BCA method used?

Reactions with coefficients of 1 or 2

How is a solution made from solid solute?

Determine mass required g=mMV

Trasnfer to volumetric falsk and add water to dissolve

Add more water up to it’s line on the volumetric flask

Add a stopper to the flask and shake

How is a solution made from concentration?

Calculate volume of concentrate based on (M₁V₁=M₂V₂)

Use burette to obtain the volume of concentrate and transfer to volumetric flask with water

Add more water up to the line on the flask

Add a stopper to the flask and shake

How is Vapor Pressure affected by colligative properties?

P_v decreases due to needing a higher temperature to boil

What is osmotic pressure?

Solvent move to the area where molarity is hgiher until both molarities equalize.

Diamagnetic

Has unpaired electrons, attracted to magnetic fields, and is colored

Paramagnetic

Has no upaired electrons, not attracted to magnetic field, and is not colored

Aufbau principle

Electron are added based on the increasing energy of subshells

Heisenberg’s uncertainty

The position and momentum of electrons can’t be known simultaneously

Pauli’s exclusion

Electrons in the same orbital have opposite spin

Hund’s rule

Electrons spread with parallel spin in equal energy orbital before pairing

Electron affinity discontinuities

Groups 2: Electrons added to group 2 must occupy a higher energy level (p-subshell)

Groups 15: Electrons added to group 15 must occupy a subshell already half filled with stable electrons (np³)

How do metals compare along a group?

The lower down the group, the more reactive due to lower ionization energy

How do nonmetals compare along a group?

The higher up the group, the more reactive due to p⁺/e^- ratio

What changes polarity of a bond?

The electronegativity difference between the two elements

How is solubilility determined?

Like dissolves like

Ionic solids

Solids made of cations and anions that are held together my electrostatic attractions. Hard and brittle, have a high melting point, and only conductive when disassociated

Covalent network solids

Atoms conected by covalent bonds. Very hard and have high melting points.

Molecular solids

Molecules held together by IMF. Soft and have varying melting points. Aren’t conductive.

Interstitial alloys

Small nonmetals fill gaps in a metallic crystal

Substitutional alloys

Metals of similar radii to the metallic crystal replace some of the metals

Filtration

Seperates mixtures based on particlle size, with larger particles being trapped in filter paper while filtrate passes through

Distillation

Seperates mixture based on boiling point

Chromatography

Seperates mixtures based on polarity, with components most similar in polarity to the mobile phase moving further

Heat capacity

q/ΔT (when mass of a substance is unknown)

How can a reaction be speed up

Temperature: More molecules have the activation energy for effective collisions

Concentrate: More molecules in a solution leads to more effective collisions

Pressure: Closer molecules in a solution leads to more effective

Particle size: The smaller the solid particle, the greater the surface area and the more effective collisions

Catalyst: Speeds up reaction by decreasing activation energy, creates a new path for reaction, doesn’t change enthalpy of reaction, starts as a reactant and ends as a product, can appear in rate law or overall reaction

Average rate

Δ[A]/coefficient*Δt

Relative rate

Given rate * mole ratio

Rate constant

Directly correlated to T

Generic unit of k

1/time*M^{(overall order-1)}

Intermediates

Produced in one step and used as a reactant in another step. Has not bearing on rate law or overall reaction

How does K/Q change with equation changes

Multiplied when two reactions are being combined

Exponentiated when a reaction is multiplied by a number

Changed to its reciprocal form when a reaction is reversed

What does Q represent?

The K_eq at its initial state

How does a increase in pressure shift the equilibrium?

If the number of moles of gases are unequal, the equilibrium shifts to the side with less moles of gas

Solubility Product Constant

K_sp: Defines the solubility of an insoluble salt and is calculated by taking the molar solubility of ions

% ionization of weak acid

[H⁺]/M_a*100

What is the key when making buffer solutions?

There must be a conjugate acid and base present

How is acid strength determined with oxyacids?

The strength is correlated to the strength of the central atom (electronegative or oxidation state)

When is Henderson-Hasselbach used in titration?

When the titration is between initial and equivalence point

When is Ka or Kb equation used?

When the titration is at initial or equivalence point