BIOL 1011

BIOL 1011 MIDTERM

Agriculture

The practice of cultivating plants and raising animals for food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products.

Permanent villages, towns, cities

Consequences of agriculture that led to the establishment of settled human communities.

Diverse economy

The result of agriculture allowing for the production of a wide range of goods and services.

Less cooperation

A consequence of agriculture leading to the development of socioeconomic classes and a decrease in communal cooperation.

Socioeconomic classes

The division of society into different social and economic groups based on wealth, occupation, and social status.

Separation of humans from rest of nature

The shift in human society brought about by agriculture, leading to a disconnection between humans and the natural world.

Large scale war

The occurrence of wars on a larger scale due to the increased population and competition for resources resulting from agriculture.

Rubber

A material derived from the rubber tree, used in various applications such as tires, footwear, and industrial products.

Cotton

A natural fiber obtained from the cotton plant, used in the production of textiles and clothing.

Plant Secondary Compounds

Chemical compounds produced by plants that are not essential for their growth or development but have various medicinal properties.

Quinine

A plant secondary compound found in the bark of the cinchona tree, used to treat malaria, anemia, muscle spasms, cancer, and as a tonic water.

Caffeine

A plant secondary compound found in the coffee tree, known for its stimulant effects on the central nervous system.

Aspirin

A plant secondary compound containing acetylsalicylic acid, derived from willow species, used as a pain reliever and anti-inflammatory medication.

THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol)

A plant secondary compound found in hashish and marijuana (cannabis sativa), responsible for the psychoactive effects of these substances.

Nicotine

A plant secondary compound found in tobacco, known for its addictive properties.

Taxol

A plant secondary compound derived from the yew tree (taxus), used in chemotherapy to treat cancer.

Energy

Food (agriculture):The role of plants in providing energy through the cultivation of crops for human consumption.

Energy

Fossil fuels:The use of plants and their remains as a source of energy in the form of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

Clothes

The use of plant fibers, such as cotton, in the production of textiles and clothing.

Drugs, medicines

The utilization of plant secondary compounds for their medicinal properties in the treatment of various diseases and conditions.

Ecosystems functioning

The contribution of plants to the functioning and stability of ecosystems through processes such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, and habitat creation.

Biodiversity

The variety of plant species and their genetic diversity, essential for the health and resilience of ecosystems.

Photosynthetic Eukaryotes

Organisms that possess a nucleus and perform photosynthesis, including plants and red algae.

Primary endosymbiosis

The process by which a prokaryote is engulfed by a eukaryote, resulting in the formation of a new eukaryotic cell.

Secondary endosymbiosis

The process by which a eukaryote engulfs another eukaryote, leading to the formation of a new eukaryotic cell.

Cuticle

A waxy covering on the surface of plants that helps reduce water loss and protect against pathogens.

Vascular tissue

Specialized tissue in plants that transports water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant.

Relationship with fungi

The symbiotic association between plants and fungi, known as mycorrhizae, which enhances nutrient uptake and promotes plant growth.

Seeds and pollen

Reproductive structures in plants that allow for the dispersal and survival of offspring.

Starch

A polysaccharide made up of glucose residues, serving as the main energy-storage molecule in plants.

Chlorophyll

A pigment found in photosynthetic eukaryotes that captures light energy for photosynthesis.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide made up of glucose residues, forming the major component of plant cell walls.

Thylakoids

Membranes inside chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and are involved in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis.

Charophytes

The closest relatives of land plants, sharing common ancestry and certain structural features.

Sporopollenin

A durable polymer found in the walls of plant spores and pollen, providing protection against desiccation and decay.

Advantages

The Move to Land:The benefits that plants gained by colonizing land, including increased

Pollination by Deceit

(in some orchids):Orchids that use deceit to attract pollinators instead of offering rewards like nectar.

Angiosperm Life Cycle

The life cycle of flowering plants, which involves double fertilization and the formation of an embryo and endosperm.

Pollen Growth

The process in which pollen lands on the stigma and grows pollen tubes towards the ovules.

Angiosperm Ovules and Ovaries

Ovules develop into seeds, while ovaries develop into fruits.

Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits

Seeds and fruits can be dispersed by various means, including wind, water, and animals.

Nourishing the Embryo

Conifers have a megagametophyte to nourish the embryo, while angiosperms have endosperm.

Endosperm

The triploid (3n) tissue in angiosperms that serves as the principal foodstuff of civilization and provides nourishment to the developing embryo.

Conquest of the Land

The evolutionary adaptations of plants that allowed them to colonize land, including the development of cuticles, sporopollenin, stomates, and vascular tissue.

Conifers and Flowering Plants

The two main groups of plants, with conifers having a different life cycle and reproductive structures compared to flowering plants.

Plant Cell Walls

The extracellular structure composed mostly of cellulose that provides support, maintains cell shape, and acts as a physical barrier to pathogens and water.

Cells Sticking Together

The middle lamella, made of pectin substances, that holds plant cells together.

3 Tissue Systems in Vascular Plants

The dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue that make up the different tissues in vascular plants.

Plant Cell Types

The different types of plant cells, including dermal cells (epidermis), ground cells (parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma), and vascular cells (tracheids, vessel elements, sieve elements).

Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem

Tracheids and vessel elements that transport water and minerals in plants.

Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem

Sieve-tube elements that transport sugars and other organic compounds in plants.

Plants Grow from Meristems

Meristems are undifferentiated cells that divide and give rise to all parts of the mature sporophyte in plants.

Apical Meristem (AM)

The meristem located at the tips of roots and shoots that is responsible for primary growth.

Lateral Meristems

The vascular cambium and cork cambium that are responsible for secondary growth in woody plants.

Secondary Growth

The growth in girth or thickness of stems and roots due to the activity of lateral meristems.

Routes of Water Movement within a Plant

The apoplast and symplast pathways through which water and minerals travel within a plant.

Water Potential

The potential energy of water, determined by solute concentration and pressure, that determines the direction of water movement in plants.

Water and Minerals Travel Upward in Xylem

Tracheids and vessel elements in the xylem transport water and minerals upward in plants.

Water Enters Roots

The apoplast and symplast pathways through which water enters the roots of plants.

Mycorrhizae - A Mutualism between Plants and Fungi

The symbiotic relationship between plants and fungi that aids in the absorption of minerals.

Generation of Transpirational Pull

The negative pressure or tension created by transpiration at the air-water interface in leaves that helps draw water up through the xylem.

Cohesion

Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules together.

Osmosis

Water and minerals enter the root by osmosis.

Pressure potential

Xylem under tension gradient, with the lowest pressure potential at the top.

Transpiration

Control of transpiration by stomates, cues to open at dawn, and stimulation of stomatal closure by abscisic acid.

Phloem Transport

Sugar and other compounds are transported in solution through sieve-tube elements via the pressure-flow hypothesis.

Water potential

Water spontaneously moves from regions of higher to lower potential energy, with water potential energy being the sum of solute potential energy and pressure potential energy.

Xylem

Tracheids and vessel elements are dead cells that transport water upward only.

Photosynthesis

The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy of NADPH and ATP, with oxygen gas being released.

Electron transfer

Water is split, losing electrons and transferring them along with hydrogen ions from water to carbon dioxide, reducing it to sugar.

Chlorophyll

Absorbs mostly violet-blue and red light, reflecting or transmitting green light.

Calvin Cycle

Dark reactions that occur in the stroma of chloroplasts and use NADPH and ATP from light reactions to make sugar.

Rubisco

Most abundant and important protein in photosynthesis, with a dual nature of attaching oxygen to RuBP and releasing CO2.

C4 Photosynthesis

Spatial separation of steps in mesophyll cells and bundle-sheath cells to minimize photorespiration.

Control Systems

Plants respond to herbivores through physical defense (thorns, trichomes) and chemical defense (distasteful and toxic compounds).

Hormones

Organic substances that affect growth and other processes, with examples including abscisic acid and ethylene.

Fungi

Heterotrophic eukaryotes with a main body that is haploid, multicellular or unicellular, and have cell walls made of chitin.

Hyphae

Fungal filaments that can be either coenocytic or septate.

Spores

Haploid reproductive structures produced by fungi through mitosis or meiosis, serving purposes such as dispersal and genetic recombination.

Phyla of Fungi

Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota, and Ascomycota, each with unique characteristics and modes of reproduction.

Ergot Alkaloids

Compounds produced by Claviceps purpurea that can restrict blood flow and have various effects, including medical uses and the production of LSD.

Aspergillus Fumigatus

A fungus that is commonly found in the environment and can cause invasive aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals.

Candida albicans

A fungus that is part of the human gut flora and can cause infections in various parts of the body.

Evolution of Fungi

Ongoing research on the phylogenetic relationships, relations to animals, multicellularity, and the occurrence of sex in fungi.