US History Final

What was an alcalde?

a Mexican official who often served as combined civil administrator, judge, and law enforcement officer

Who were the Barnburners?

northern Democrats loyal to Martin Van Buren who opposed the extension of slavery into the territories and broke away from the main party when it nominated a pro

Who were Californios?

Mexican residents of California

What was the Compromise of 1850?

five separate laws passed by Congress in September 1850 to resolve issues stemming from the Mexican Cession and the sectional crisis

What was the Corps of Discovery?

the group led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on the expedition to explore and map the territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase

What was an empresario?

a person who brought new settlers to Texas in exchange for a grant of land

What was a filibuster?

a person who engages in an unofficial military operation intended to seize land from foreign countries or foment revolution there

Who were the forty-niners?

roughly 300,000 people who migrated to California in 1849

What was the Free

Soil Party?

What was the Liberty Party?

a political party formed in 1840 by those who believed political measures were the best means by which abolition could be accomplished

What was the Mexican Cession?

the lands west of the Rio Grande ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848, including California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado

What was the Missouri Compromise?

an agreement reached in Congress in 1820 that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state, brought Maine into the Union as a free state, and prohibited slavery north of 36° 30' latitude

What was the Northwest Passage?

the nonexistent all-water route across the North American continent sought by European and American explorers

What did northerners mean by Slave Power?

a term northerners used to describe the disproportionate influence that they felt elite southern slaveholders wielded in both domestic and international affairs

What was the Tallmadge Amendment?

an amendment (which did not pass) proposed by representative James Tallmadge in 1819 that called for Missouri to be admitted as a free state and for all enslaved people there to be gradually emancipated

Who were Tejanos?

Mexican residents of Texas

What was the Wilmot Proviso?

an amendment to a revenue bill that would have barred slavery from all the territory acquired from Mexico

Why did Thomas Jefferson send Meriwether Lewis and William Clark into the Louisiana Territory?

Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to explore and map the Louisiana Territory after the Louisiana Purchase. He wanted them to gather scientific and geographic information, establish relations with Native peoples, and most importantly search for an all-water route from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean known as the Northwest Passage.

What was the significance of the Corps of Discovery expedition?

The Corps of Discovery helped Americans better understand the lands gained in the Louisiana Purchase. Their journey increased national excitement about western settlement, economic opportunity, and the expansion of American power across the continent.

What did Americans hope to find in the West during Lewis and Clark’s expedition?

Many Americans hoped the West would provide land, resources, trade routes, and a direct water passage to the Pacific that would improve commerce with Asia.

What did the Adams

Onís Treaty accomplish for the United States?

Why were some Americans frustrated after the Adams-Onís Treaty?

The main reason some Americans were upset was that the U.S. gave up its claim to Texas.

At the time, many people believed Texas was already part of the U.S. because of the Louisiana Purchase. When the treaty gave Texas to Spain in exchange for Florida, they felt like the government was just handing over valuable land.

Why did Missouri’s request for statehood create a national crisis in 1819?

Missouri wanted to enter the Union as a slave state, which threatened the balance between free and slave states in the Senate. This caused fierce debate because many northerners opposed the spread of slavery while southerners believed slavery must be protected.

What did the Tallmadge Amendment propose?

The Tallmadge Amendment proposed that Missouri be admitted as a free state and that enslaved people already there would gradually be emancipated. Southerners strongly opposed it because they saw it as federal interference with slavery.

Why did the Missouri Crisis create fears of disunion and civil war?

The debate became more than a question of representation. It turned into a moral and sectional argument over slavery itself. Northerners increasingly criticized slavery, while southerners defended it as essential, making many fear the Union could break apart.

What did the Missouri Compromise do?

The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state to preserve balance in the Senate. It also drew the 36°30′ line across the Louisiana Territory, banning slavery north of that line except in Missouri.

Why was the Missouri Compromise considered only a temporary solution?

It temporarily calmed sectional tensions, but it did not settle the larger issue of whether slavery would continue expanding westward. This meant the same conflict would return as the nation gained more land.

How was Texas different from the Louisiana Purchase in terms of U.S. expansion?

Unlike the Louisiana Purchase, which was obtained peacefully through diplomacy, Texas was gained through violence and rebellion against Mexico. American settlers in Texas fought to separate from Mexican control.

Why did many American settlers move to Texas?

Many moved because empresarios offered cheap land, and slaveholding southerners saw Texas as a place to expand cotton farming and slavery.

Why did Texas settlers rebel against Mexico?

Many Anglo settlers disliked Mexican laws, especially restrictions on slavery and immigration. They also believed Mexico was weak and felt culturally superior, leading them to push for independence.

When did Texas win independence from Mexico?

Texas won its independence in 1836 after defeating General Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto.

Why did the United States hesitate to annex Texas right away?

The United States feared war with Mexico, worried annexation would upset the balance between free and slave states, and knew adding Texas would strengthen slavery and anger abolitionists.

What was the Lone Star Republic?

the independent Republic of Texas formed after Texas won independence from Mexico in 1836 where slavery remained legal.

Why was James K. Polk important to westward expansion?

Polk strongly supported Manifest Destiny and oversaw major territorial growth. During his presidency, Texas was annexed, Oregon was peacefully divided with Great Britain, and war with Mexico led to huge land gains in the Southwest.

How did the United States gain Oregon Country?

the United States negotiated peacefully with Great Britain, resulting in a treaty that gave the U.S. control of what are now Washington and Oregon.

What caused the Mexican- American War?

Tensions rose after the annexation of Texas because Mexico still considered Texas its territory. Border disputes and Polk’s aggressive expansionist policies led to war in 1846.

What was the Mexican Cession and why was it significant?

the Mexican Cession was the massive territory Mexico gave to the United States after losing the war in 1848. It nearly doubled U.S. land in the West and reopened the question of whether slavery would spread.

How did the California Gold Rush affect the United States?

the Gold Rush caused a huge population boom in California as thousands rushed west seeking wealth. It also increased immigration, especially from China, and led to violence, discrimination, and the destruction of many Native American communities.

Why did many White Californians resent Chinese immigrants?

many White miners believed Chinese immigrants were taking jobs and economic opportunities. Racism and fear of competition caused hostility and discrimination against them.

Why did the Mexican Cession reignite sectional conflict over slavery?

because the United States had gained so much new land, Congress had to decide whether slavery would be allowed there. Northerners wanted free soil, while southerners demanded equal rights to bring enslaved labor west.

What did the Wilmot Proviso attempt to do?

the Wilmot Proviso attempted to ban slavery in all territory acquired from Mexico. Although it never passed, it intensified sectional division by making slavery expansion the central political issue.

Why did the Democratic Party split after the Mexican War?

northern Democrats opposed the extension of slavery and became angry when the party supported candidates friendly to popular sovereignty. Many broke away and formed the Barnburner-led Free-Soil Party.

Why was the Free-Soil Party created?

The Free-Soil Party was created by northerners who wanted western territories reserved for free White labor and opposed the spread of slavery into the Mexican Cession.

What was popular sovereignty?

the idea that settlers in each territory should vote and decide for themselves whether slavery would be allowed.

How did northerners use the term Slave Power?

northerners argued that wealthy southern slaveholders had too much control over the federal government and were using that influence to spread slavery into the West.

What did the Compromise of 1850 do?

the Compromise of 1850 admitted California as a free state, allowed New Mexico and Utah to decide slavery by popular sovereignty, ended the slave trade in Washington D.C., and created a stronger Fugitive Slave Law. It temporarily reduced sectional tensions but satisfied neither side.

Why was the Compromise of 1850 only a short-term solution?

It postponed open conflict but did not solve the deeper disagreement over slavery’s future. Both North and South remained angry, and sectional debate continued to intensify.

How did westward expansion repeatedly intensify the issue of slavery in the United States?

each new territory raised the question of whether it would be admitted as free or slave. Because political power in Congress depended on this balance, every expansion—from Missouri to Texas to the Mexican Cession—made sectional conflict worse.

Why did the balance between free and slave states matter so much?

the balance mattered because equal numbers kept either North or South from dominating the Senate. If one side gained too much power, it could shape national laws about slavery, economics, and territorial growth.

How did American attitudes toward Mexico contribute to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War?

Many Americans viewed Mexico as weak, unstable, and racially inferior. This belief made expansionists feel justified in taking Mexican land and ignoring Mexican sovereignty.

What larger pattern does Texas show in the story of American westward expansion?

Texas shows that westward expansion was not always peaceful settlement; it often involved violence, racial superiority, land seizure, and the expansion of slavery.

What does antebellum mean?

a term meaning “before the war” and used to describe the decades before the American Civil War began in 1861.

What is a cash crop?

a crop grown to be sold for profit instead of consumption by the farmer’s family.

What is concurrent majority?

a majority of a separate region that would otherwise be in the minority of the nation with the power to veto or disallow legislation put forward by a hostile majority.

What was the cotton boom?

the upswing in American cotton production during the nineteenth century.

What was the cotton gin?

a device patented by Eli Whitney in 1794 that separated the seeds from raw cotton quickly and easily.

What was the domestic slave trade?

the trading of enslaved people within the borders of the United States.

What was the Ostend Manifesto?

the secret diplomatic memo stating that if Spain refused to sell Cuba to the United States, the United States was justified in taking the island as a national security measure.

What was paternalism?

the premise that southern White slaveholders acted in the best interests of those they enslaved.

What was polygenism?

the idea that Black and White people come from different origins.

What was the second middle passage?

the internal forced migration of enslaved people to the South and West in the United States.

Why was cotton so important to the antebellum South?

cotton became the South’s most profitable cash crop and made the region the leading supplier of cotton in the world. Its production created enormous wealth for plantation owners and tied the southern economy directly to slavery.

What caused the cotton boom in the nineteenth century?

the invention of the cotton gin made processing cotton much faster, while rising demand from textile mills in both the North and Europe made cotton highly profitable. This encouraged rapid expansion of cotton plantations across the Deep South.

How did Eli Whitney’s cotton gin transform the southern economy?

the cotton gin removed seeds from raw cotton quickly, allowing far more cotton to be processed and sold. Instead of reducing slavery, it increased the demand for enslaved labor because plantation owners wanted to grow more cotton.

Why did slavery expand as cotton production expanded?

cotton farming required intense manual labor to plant, cultivate, and pick the crop. As cotton profits rose, southern planters needed more enslaved workers to maintain and increase production.

How did the Mississippi River Valley become the center of cotton production?

its fertile soil and access to river transportation made it ideal for large plantations. Planters rapidly transformed forests and swamps into cotton fields, making the region the heart of the cotton kingdom.

How did the end of the international slave trade affect slavery in the United States?

after the foreign slave trade was outlawed in 1808, slaveholders relied on buying and selling enslaved people within the country. This caused the domestic slave trade to grow rapidly.

What was the domestic slave trade and why was it significant?

the domestic slave trade involved selling enslaved people from older slave states like Virginia to the expanding cotton states in the Deep South. It became a huge business and led to the forced breakup of countless Black families.

What was the second middle passage?

the second middle passage was the forced migration of enslaved people from the Upper South to cotton

Why was the South not truly economically independent despite cotton wealth?

although the South produced cotton, it depended heavily on the North and Europe for manufactured goods, food, banking, shipping, and loans. This meant the South was deeply tied into the national and global market economy.

What was daily life like for enslaved people in the antebellum South?

enslaved people lived under constant surveillance, hard labor, violence, and the threat of family separation. Because they were legally considered property, they had little protection against abuse.

How did slavery generate wealth for White southerners?

slave labor produced cotton and other profitable crops at very low labor costs for plantation owners. This allowed slaveholders to accumulate huge fortunes while enslaved people received none of the profits from their labor.

What kinds of trauma did enslaved people experience?

enslaved people experienced physical punishment, exhausting labor, sexual exploitation, psychological abuse, and the constant fear of being sold away from loved ones.

How did enslaved people resist slavery?

resistance took many forms, including slowing work, pretending illness, breaking tools, preserving cultural traditions, escaping, and sometimes open rebellion. Even small acts of resistance asserted humanity against oppression.

How did enslaved people create community despite oppression?

they built strong family ties when possible, formed support networks in slave quarters, shared stories and traditions, and practiced religion together. These communities helped preserve identity and emotional survival.

Why was Christianity important to many enslaved people?

Christianity gave enslaved people hope, spiritual comfort, and the belief that justice would eventually come. Many interpreted Christian teachings as promises of freedom and equality before God.

What was the status of free Black people in the antebellum United States?

although some free Black people gained property or financial success, most still faced severe racism, legal discrimination, and restrictions on movement, voting, and employment.

Who held most of the wealth in the antebellum South?

a small planter elite who owned large numbers of enslaved people controlled most southern wealth, land, and political influence.

What was the largest group of White southerners?

the majority of White southerners enslaved no one, though many hoped to one day rise into the slaveholding class.

Why did non

slaveholding White southerners still support slavery?

How did slavery reduce class conflict among White southerners?

even though wealth was unequal, race united White southerners. Poor Whites often identified more with wealthy planters than with enslaved Black people because slavery reinforced White superiority.

What role did honor play in southern culture?

southern culture emphasized male honor, personal dominance, and the defense of White womanhood. A man’s reputation depended on his ability to command respect and control others.

What was paternalism in the South?

slaveholders claimed they cared for enslaved people like children and provided food, shelter, and guidance. This idea was used to justify slavery as a supposedly benevolent institution.

How did slaveholders use paternalism to defend slavery?

they argued enslaved people were better cared for than northern wage laborers because masters supposedly looked after them for life. This allowed slaveholders to portray slavery as humane rather than exploitative.

How did enslaved people sometimes use paternalism to their advantage?

because slaveholders claimed to be caring guardians, enslaved people sometimes appealed to this language to request better treatment, extra food, less punishment, or family consideration.

What was John C. Calhoun’s idea of concurrent majority?

Calhoun argued that the South, as a distinct minority region, should have the right to block federal laws that threatened slavery even if the national majority supported them.

Why was concurrent majority important to proslavery politics?

it provided an intellectual defense for southern resistance to antislavery legislation and claimed the South needed special constitutional protection.

What was polygenism and how was it used to support slavery?

polygenism claimed Black and White people came from different origins and were therefore naturally unequal. Proslavery thinkers used this racist pseudoscience to argue that Black people were suited for enslavement.

Why did southern expansionists seek new slave territories in the 1850s?

as sectional tensions increased, southerners feared losing political power if no new slave states were added. Expanding slavery into new territories would help preserve southern influence in Congress.

What was filibustering in the antebellum era?

filibustering involved private military expeditions led by Americans who attempted to invade foreign lands and annex them as future slave states without official U.S. government approval.

Why did proslavery Americans support filibuster expeditions?

they believed acquiring places like Cuba or Nicaragua would expand the slave economy, strengthen southern political power, and spread what they considered White American superiority.

What was the Ostend Manifesto about?

the Ostend Manifesto argued that the United States should buy Cuba from Spain and, if Spain refused, the U.S. would be justified in taking it by force.

Why was Cuba especially attractive to southern slaveholders?

Cuba had a plantation economy based on enslaved labor, making it an ideal candidate for becoming another slave state and strengthening the South.

How did filibustering reveal southern attitudes about race and empire?

it showed that many proslavery expansionists believed the United States had the right to dominate weaker nations and spread slavery because they saw themselves as racially superior.

Why did the cotton kingdom undermine Thomas Jefferson’s vision of independent small farmers?

Jefferson imagined a republic of self

How did the cotton boom connect the South, North, and Europe economically?

southern plantations produced raw cotton, northern mills manufactured textiles, and European industries bought massive quantities of cotton. This made slavery central not just to the South but to a wider Atlantic economy.

How did slavery shape every part of southern society, not just the plantation economy?

slavery influenced wealth, politics, race relations, class identity, gender expectations, and expansionist foreign policy. It was the foundation of southern culture and power.

What were the major proslavery arguments in the antebellum South?

proslavery advocates argued slavery was economically necessary, that enslaved people benefited from paternal care, that racial differences made Black people naturally subordinate, and that the South had the constitutional right to protect slavery from federal interference.

How would opponents challenge proslavery arguments?

opponents would argue slavery was based on violence, exploitation, and racism, that paternalism was a false justification for human ownership, and that slavery contradicted democratic ideals of liberty and equality.

Why did southerners become so aggressive about expanding slavery in the 1850s?

southerners feared that if slavery stopped expanding, free states would outnumber slave states and the South would lose political control. Expansion was seen as necessary for slavery’s survival.