AP GOV ENTIRE COURSE

10th Amendment

Reserves to the states or the people all powers not delegated to the federal government nor prohibited to the states by the Constitution; the basis for reserved powers and state sovereignty arguments.

11th Amendment

Restricts the ability of individuals to sue a state in federal court without the state's consent; reinforces the principle of state sovereign immunity.

12th Amendment

Revised the Electoral College procedure so that electors cast separate ballots for president and vice president, preventing the confusion that occurred in the election of 1800.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude throughout the United States, except as punishment for a crime; ratified in 1865 after the Civil War.

14th Amendment

Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States; includes the Due Process Clause (no state may deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law) and the Equal Protection Clause (no state may deny any person equal protection of the laws). The basis for selective incorporation of the Bill of Rights to the states.

15th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude; ratified in 1870 during Reconstruction.

16th Amendment

Authorizes Congress to levy a federal income tax without apportioning it among the states based on population; ratified in 1913.

17th Amendment

Provides for the direct election of U.S. senators by the people of each state, replacing the original method of selection by state legislatures; ratified in 1913.

18th Amendment

Prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States (Prohibition); ratified in 1919 and later repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933.

19th Amendment

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote on the basis of sex, granting women's suffrage nationwide; ratified in 1920.

1st Amendment

Protects the freedoms of religion (Establishment and Free Exercise Clauses), speech, press, peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government for redress of grievances.

20th Amendment

Moved the beginning of presidential and vice-presidential terms from March 4 to January 20 and congressional terms to January 3, reducing the 'lame duck' period; ratified in 1933.

21st Amendment

Repealed the 18th Amendment, ending Prohibition and allowing states to regulate the sale and consumption of alcohol within their borders; ratified in 1933.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two terms in office (or a maximum of ten years if a vice president assumes the presidency mid-term); ratified in 1951 in response to Franklin D. Roosevelt's four terms.

23rd Amendment

Grants residents of Washington, D.C., the right to vote in presidential elections and allocates the District three electoral votes; ratified in 1961.

24th Amendment

Prohibits the use of poll taxes as a condition for voting in federal elections, removing a major barrier used to disenfranchise poor and minority voters; ratified in 1964.

25th Amendment

Establishes procedures for presidential succession and disability; allows the vice president to become acting president if the president is unable to serve and provides for filling a vice-presidential vacancy.

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 for all federal, state, and local elections; ratified in 1971 during the Vietnam War era.

27th Amendment

Prohibits any law varying the compensation of members of Congress from taking effect until after the next election of representatives; originally proposed in 1789 but not ratified until 1992.

2nd Amendment

Protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms; interpreted in District of Columbia v. Heller (2008) as an individual right and incorporated to the states in McDonald v. Chicago (2010).

3rd Amendment

Prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent during peacetime; reflects colonial-era grievances against British military occupation.

4th Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures; requires probable cause and, in most cases, a warrant for searches; the basis for the exclusionary rule.

527 organization

A tax-exempt political organization that raises money for issue advocacy and voter mobilization but cannot expressly advocate for or against a specific candidate.

5th Amendment

Guarantees the right to a grand jury indictment in federal criminal cases, protection against double jeopardy and self-incrimination, the right to due process of law, and just compensation for property taken by eminent domain.

6th Amendment

Guarantees the rights of criminal defendants, including the right to a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, to be informed of charges, to confront witnesses, and to have the assistance of counsel (applied to states in Gideon v. Wainwright).

7th Amendment

Preserves the right to a jury trial in federal civil cases where the value in controversy exceeds twenty dollars.

8th Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

9th Amendment

States that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not deny or disparage other rights retained by the people; supports the concept of unenumerated rights.

Advice and consent

The Senate's constitutional role in approving presidential appointments (judges, ambassadors, Cabinet members) and ratifying treaties by a two-thirds vote.

Affirmative action

Policies that take factors such as race, gender, or ethnicity into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in education and employment; upheld with limitations in Grutter v. Bollinger (2003).

Amendment process

The procedure outlined in Article V of the Constitution for formally changing the document; requires proposal by two-thirds of both houses of Congress (or a national convention) and ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures (or state conventions).

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the ratification of the Constitution who feared a strong central government would threaten individual liberties and state sovereignty; their demands led to the addition of the Bill of Rights.

Appropriations

The process by which Congress authorizes spending of federal funds for specific programs and agencies; part of the congressional 'power of the purse.'

Articles of Confederation

The first governing document of the United States (1781–1789) that created a loose alliance of sovereign states with a weak central government; replaced by the Constitution due to its inability to tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established that federal courts can hear cases involving legislative redistricting, ruling that malapportioned districts are justiciable under the Equal Protection Clause; led to the 'one person, one vote' standard for legislative districts.

Ballot initiative

A process by which citizens can propose new laws or constitutional amendments by collecting a required number of signatures and placing the measure on the ballot for a direct public vote.

Battleground state

A state where the outcome of a presidential election is uncertain and both major-party candidates have a realistic chance of winning, leading to intense campaign focus; also called a swing state.

Bias

A predisposition or inclination, especially one that inhibits impartial judgment; in polling, systematic errors in survey design or sampling that produce inaccurate results.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature consisting of two chambers; in the U.S., Congress is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the Constitution, ratified in 1791, that guarantee fundamental individual rights and liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press, and protections against unreasonable government action.

Block grants

Federal funds given to state or local governments for broad policy areas with few restrictions on how the money is spent, allowing greater state flexibility.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Declared that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson's 'separate but equal' doctrine; ruled that segregated schools violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, marking a major victory for the civil rights movement.

Brutus No. 1

An Anti-Federalist essay arguing that the proposed Constitution would create a government too powerful and too distant from the people, threatening individual liberty and state authority; warned that the Necessary and Proper Clause would expand federal power.

Budget deficit

The amount by which government spending exceeds government revenue in a given fiscal year.

Bully pulpit

The president's use of the visibility and prestige of the office to influence public opinion and shape the national agenda.

Bureaucracy

The complex structure of offices, tasks, rules, and principles of organization employed by all large-scale institutions, including the executive branch agencies that implement and administer federal policy.

Cabinet

The group of senior advisors to the president, typically the heads of the fifteen executive departments, who help the president manage the federal bureaucracy and set policy.

Campaign finance

The raising and spending of money to influence elections; regulated by federal laws and Supreme Court decisions including Buckley v. Valeo and Citizens United v. FEC.

Candidate-centered campaign

A modern election strategy in which individual candidates, rather than political parties, drive campaign organization, fundraising, and voter outreach.

Categorical grants

Federal funds provided to state or local governments for specific, narrowly defined purposes with strict conditions on how the money must be spent.

Caucus

A meeting of party members at the local level to select delegates to party conventions and express preferences for candidates; used in some states instead of primaries.

Checks and balances

The system built into the Constitution that gives each branch of government the power to limit the other branches, preventing any single branch from becoming too powerful.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

Ruled that the First Amendment prohibits the government from restricting independent political expenditures by corporations, unions, and other associations; led to the rise of super PACs and dramatically increased the role of money in elections.

Civil liberties

Constitutionally protected freedoms that shield individuals from government interference, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the right to due process; primarily found in the Bill of Rights.

Civil rights

The rights of citizens to political and social equality, protected by government against discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or other characteristics; advanced through legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark federal legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment, public accommodations, and federally funded programs.

Clear and present danger test

A standard established in Schenck v. United States (1919) for determining when speech can be restricted: the government can limit speech that presents a clear and present danger of bringing about substantive evils.

Closed primary

A primary election in which only registered members of a political party can vote to select that party's candidates.

Cloture

A Senate procedure requiring 60 votes to end debate (a filibuster) and bring a measure to a final vote.

Coattail effect

The tendency of a popular candidate at the top of a ticket to attract votes for other candidates of the same party running in lower-level races.

Commerce Clause

Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 of the Constitution, granting Congress the power to regulate interstate and foreign commerce; a major source of federal regulatory authority.

Committee system

The organizational structure of Congress in which standing, select, joint, and conference committees review legislation, conduct investigations, and oversee the executive branch.

Concurrent powers

Powers shared by both the federal and state governments, such as the power to tax, build roads, and establish courts.

Confederate system

A system of government in which sovereign states delegate limited powers to a weak central authority; the central government cannot act directly on citizens without state consent.

Conference committee

A temporary joint committee created to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of a bill before sending a final version to both chambers for approval.

Congressional election

Elections held every two years in which all 435 House seats and roughly one-third of the 100 Senate seats are contested; midterm elections occur when there is no presidential race.

Congressional oversight

Congress's review and monitoring of the executive branch agencies and programs to ensure laws are implemented as intended; conducted through hearings, investigations, and the budget process.

Connecticut (Great) Compromise

The agreement at the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature with proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate.

Consent of the governed

The Enlightenment idea, central to the Declaration of Independence, that a government's legitimacy comes from the approval and participation of its citizens.

Conservative

A political ideology favoring limited government, free markets, traditional values, individual responsibility, and a strong national defense; generally associated with the Republican Party.

Constituent

A citizen who lives in the district or state represented by an elected official.

Constitution

The supreme law of the United States, ratified in 1788, that establishes the framework of the federal government, divides power among three branches, and protects individual rights through its amendments.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the U.S. Constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation; key compromises addressed representation, slavery, and the structure of government.

Cooperative federalism

A model of federalism in which national and state governments work together, sharing responsibilities and funding to address policy problems; associated with the New Deal era onward.

Critical election

An election that signals a significant, long-lasting shift in the balance of power between political parties, often associated with a party realignment.

De facto segregation

Racial separation that exists in practice, resulting from housing patterns, economic factors, and social conditions rather than from explicit laws.

De jure segregation

Racial separation imposed by law, such as Jim Crow laws in the South that mandated separate facilities for Black and white citizens; declared unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Dealignment

A trend in which voters abandon their loyalty to a political party without forming an attachment to another party, leading to more independent and split-ticket voting.

Declaration of Independence

The 1776 document, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, declaring the colonies' independence from Britain and articulating the philosophy of natural rights, government by consent, and the right of revolution.

Delegate model

A theory of representation in which a legislator votes according to the expressed preferences of their constituents, regardless of the legislator's own opinion.

Delegated (enumerated) powers

Powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the Constitution, listed primarily in Article I, Section 8; examples include the power to coin money, declare war, and regulate interstate commerce.

Democracy

A system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise it directly or through elected representatives; the United States is a representative (republican) democracy.

Democrat

A member or supporter of the Democratic Party, one of the two major political parties in the United States, generally associated with liberal or progressive policy positions.

Discharge petition

A procedure in the House of Representatives by which a majority of members (218) can force a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote.

Discretionary spending

Federal spending that must be authorized through the annual appropriations process, including defense, education, and transportation; contrasted with mandatory spending.

Divided government

A situation in which the presidency and at least one chamber of Congress are controlled by different political parties.

Dual federalism

A model of federalism in which the national and state governments operate independently within their own spheres of authority, like layers of a cake; dominant before the New Deal.

Due process clause

The constitutional guarantee (in the 5th and 14th Amendments) that the government cannot deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures.

Earmark

A provision in legislation that directs funds to a specific project, usually in a legislator's home district; also called pork barrel spending.

Election cycle

The period of time between elections during which candidates campaign, raise funds, and seek voter support; presidential cycles last four years, congressional cycles two years.

Electoral College

The body of 538 electors established by Article II of the Constitution that formally elects the president and vice president; a candidate must win 270 electoral votes to become president.

Elite democracy

A model of democracy in which a small number of wealthy or well-educated citizens influence political decision-making; argues that the masses are best served by deferring to knowledgeable leaders.

Eminent domain

The government's power to take private property for public use, provided the owner receives just compensation; protected by the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Ruled that school-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, even if the prayer is nondenominational and student participation is voluntary.

Entitlements

Government programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid that provide benefits to all eligible individuals; spending is mandatory and not subject to the annual appropriations process.

Enumerated powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution as belonging to the federal government, found mainly in Article I, Section 8; include taxing, spending, regulating commerce, and declaring war.

Equal protection clause

The Fourteenth Amendment provision requiring states to treat all persons equally under the law; the basis for challenging discriminatory legislation and practices.

Establishment Clause

The First Amendment clause prohibiting the government from establishing an official religion or favoring one religion over another; at issue in Engel v. Vitale (1962).

Ex post facto law

A law that retroactively criminalizes actions that were legal when performed or increases punishment after the fact; prohibited by Article I, Sections 9 and 10 of the Constitution.

Exceptional power

Extraordinary authority exercised by the executive, typically during emergencies or crises, that goes beyond the ordinary constitutional powers of the office; sometimes used interchangeably with emergency powers.