HIST 2A03 FINAL EXAM REVIEW PT. 3

key terms, places, and agreements

Islam

Religion revealed to Muhammad beginning c.610 CE; Monotheistic; based on Quran (divine revelations); Five Pillars; Shari'ah (Islamic law developed by scholars from Quran, Sunnah, qiyas, ijma)

Sunni Islam

Orthodox majority tradition; accepts succession of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali; Caliph as political/religious leader; upheld by Umayyads, Abbasids, Seljuqs, Ottomans

Shi'a Islam

"Faction" of Ali; rejects Caliphs after Ali; recognizes Imams descended from Ali and Fatima (Muhammad's daughter); Imam infallible; concept of Occultation (Hidden Imam); majority in Iran and Iraq today

Twelvers

Largest Shi'a group; recognize 12 Imams; 12th Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) entered Occultation in late 9th century; will return at end of days

Ismailis

Shi'a group following Isma'il (son of Jafar al-Sadiq) rather than Musa al-Kazim; Fatimid dynasty (Egypt 970–1170) was Ismaili

Occultation

Doctrine that Hidden Imam is in hiding; will return to restore justice; basis of Twelver Shi'ism

Jizya

Poll tax paid by non-Muslims (Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians = "people of the book") under Islamic rule; facilitated rapid expansion of Muslim authority

Caliphate

Institution of Islamic political and religious leadership; ended when Mongols killed last Abbasid Caliph (1258); revived symbolically by Mamluks; claimed by Ottoman sultans; abolished by Atatürk (1924)

Ulama

Islamic scholars/clerics; custodians of Shari'ah; key political force especially in Iran

Sufism

Devotional/mystical Islamic movement; began as asceticism against Umayyad worldliness; emphasis on love of God and personal communion; Sufi orders banned in Turkey (1925)

Wahhabi Islam

Puritanical reform movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (18th century Arabia); allied with the House of Saud; became Saudi Arabia's official creed

Da'wa

"Call to God"; activist concept of Islam; participating in mosque activities and charity work; part of Islamist movements

Jihad

For reformist Islamists: internal spiritual struggle; for militant Islamists: external duty to fight threats to faith

Islamism

Political movement using Islam as a political system; diverse; grassroots; inclusive; filled gap left by failing states; includes Muslim Brotherhood, Hamas, Hezbollah, Salafists, Al-Qaeda

Salafism

Call for lifestyle modelled on Muhammad's original companions (7th century); extreme Islamists; basis for militant groups

Vilayat-i Faqih

Governance of Islamic Jurist; Khomeini's doctrine that qualified religious jurists should govern in absence of Hidden Imam; basis of Iranian constitution

Ottomanism

Identity of Ottoman citizenship transcending ethnicity/religion; promoted during Tanzimat era; less successful outside Anatolia

Pan-Arabism / Arabism

Movement for Arab unity based on shared language, culture, history; championed by Nasser; Ba'th Party ideology

Pan-Islamism

Abdul Hamid II's policy of solidarity among Muslims worldwide; used against Westernization

Zionism

Movement to establish Jewish homeland in Palestine; rooted in Biblical claim; Theodore Herzl key figure; accelerated after Holocaust

Ba'thism

"Arab Resurrection"; founded by Aflaq and al-Bitar in Syria (1940s); slogan: "Unity, Freedom, Socialism"; ruled Syria (1963–present) and Iraq (1968–2003)

Kemalism

Atatürk's guiding principles: reformism, secularism, republicanism, nationalism, populism, étatism; military as guardian

Nasserism

Nasser's ideology: anti-imperialism, Arab unity, Arab socialism, non-alignment; inspiration across Arab world

Mandate System

League of Nations system of colonial oversight for former Ottoman territories; "independent nations subject to oversight"; Britain got Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine; France got Syria and Lebanon

Millet System

Ottoman system allowing non-Muslim communities to govern themselves in religious/personal matters; reconstituted in the Israeli legal system

Capitulations

Commercial treaties granting European merchants immunity from Ottoman law; began with France (1569); eroded Ottoman sovereignty

Devshirme

Ottoman system of collecting Christian boys as slaves, converted to Islam; trained as soldiers (Janissaries) or administrators, and provided loyal elite

Tanzimat

"Reorganization"; Ottoman reform era 1839–76; driven by Mustafa, Ali, and Fuad Pashas; Hatt-i Sharif (1839), Hatt-i Humayan (1856), Land Code (1858), Mejelle (1876)

Janissaries

Ottoman slave soldiers taken from Christian families; trained as professional military elite; eventually became an independent political force; destroyed by Mahmoud II (1826)

Veiled Protectorate

British informal control of Egypt (1882–1922); technically still an Ottoman province; Khedive remained nominal ruler; real power held by British

Infitah

"The Opening"; Sadat's economic liberalization policy; encouraged foreign investment; dismantled parts of Nasserist socialism; benefited wealthy, not masses

Dual Control

French and British financial controllers managing Egyptian state revenues (1876–1882)

Import Substitution Industrialization

Economic policy of building domestic industries to replace imports; pursued across Middle East 1950s–70s; largely stalled

Étatism

State dominates economy; key Kemalist principle; adopted by many Middle Eastern states

Apartheid

Term increasingly applied by human rights organizations (incl. Human Rights Watch, 2022) to describe Israeli system of different rights for Jews and Palestinians across all jurisdictions between Mediterranean and Jordan River

Husayn-McMahon Correspondence (1915–16)

British promised Arab independent state in exchange for Arab Revolt; excluded parts of Syria; Palestine's status ambiguous

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

Secret Franco-British agreement dividing Middle East into zones of influence; roughly followed in creating mandates

Balfour Declaration (1917)

British promise of "national home for Jewish people" in Palestine; while "not prejudicing rights of non-Jewish communities"

Treaty of Lausanne (1923)

Recognized Turkish sovereignty; fixed borders with Greece/Bulgaria; cancelled Turkish war debt; ended Ottoman Empire legally

Anglo-Iraqi Treaties (1922, 1930)

Granted Iraq increasing autonomy; 1930 led to independence while Britain retained RAF bases and troop rights

Camp David Accords (1978)

Framework for Egyptian-Israeli peace; Israel to withdraw from Sinai; vague Palestinian autonomy framework; signed by Sadat, Begin, Carter

Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty (1979)

First Arab-Israel peace treaty; Israel withdrew from Sinai; Egypt gained access to Suez Canal; Egypt expelled from Arab League

Oslo I Accords (1993)

PLO recognized Israel; Israel recognized PLO; 5-year framework for Palestinian autonomy; postponed key issues (Jerusalem, refugees, borders, settlements)

Oslo II (1995)

Detailed stages of Israeli military redeployment; divided West Bank into Zones A (PA control, 3%), B (shared, 24%), C (Israel control, 74%)

Wye Accords (1998)

Netanyahu reluctantly accepted land-for-peace principle; immediately violated

Taif Accord (1989)

Ended Lebanese civil war; transferred powers from Maronite president to Sunni PM; equalized Christian/Muslim parliamentary seats; acknowledged Syrian role

Abraham Accords (2020)

UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, Morocco normalize relations with Israel; brokered by Trump administration; Palestinians not consulted

OPEC

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; founded in 1960 (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela); used oil as a weapon in 1973; quadrupled prices

Arab League

Founded 1945; committed to Palestinian cause; expelled Egypt (1979); readmitted Egypt (1989)

PLO

Palestine Liberation Organization; founded 1964; originally controlled by established Palestinian families; taken over by Fedayeen/Fatah (1969); Arafat chairman until death

Fatah

Palestinian resistance organization founded 1959 by Arafat and others; believed in military action; largest PLO faction; ran Palestinian Authority

Hamas

Islamic Resistance Movement; founded 1988 as Gaza branch of Muslim Brotherhood; opposed Oslo; rejected Israel's right to exist; won 2006 elections; controls Gaza; designated terrorist organization by West

Hezbollah

"Party of God"; Lebanese Shia militia founded 1982; inspired by Iranian revolution; main objective: drive Israelis from Lebanon; significant political party in Lebanon; backed by Iran and Syria

Muslim Brotherhood

Founded in Egypt 1928 by Hasan al-Banna; calls for Islamic system; banned repeatedly in Egypt; branches across Middle East; parent organization of Hamas

CUP (Committee of Union and Progress)

Young Turks' political organization; controlled Ottoman Empire 1908–18; promoted Ottomanism then Turkish nationalism; central force in Armenian genocide

PKK (Kurdistan Workers' Party)

Kurdish militant organization; insurrection against Turkish state began 1984; basic objective: Kurdish autonomy within Turkey; Öcalan captured 1999

UNRWA

United Nations Relief and Works Agency; founded 1949–50 to oversee Palestinian refugee camps; registered 960,000 Palestinians initially; severely underfunded

SAVAK

Iranian secret police established by Shah with US/Israeli help; notorious for torture and surveillance; dismantled in 1979

Revolutionary Guards

Formed 1979 by Khomeini; distinct from regular Iranian military; enforces revolutionary values; became major power center in Iran

Guardian Council

12-member Iranian body (6 ulama chosen by Supreme Leader, 6 jurists); ensures all legislation conforms to Sharia; vets electoral candidates; key instrument of conservative control

Ba'th Party

Arab socialist party; founded Syria 1940s by Aflaq and al-Bitar; "Unity, Freedom, Socialism"; ruled Syria 1963–present and Iraq 1968–2003; dissolved in Iraq by US (2003)

Free Officers

Egyptian junior officers who overthrew King Farouk (1952); organized by Nasser; from lower/middle class backgrounds; fought in disastrous 1948 war

Fedayeen

Palestinian resistance fighters; "those who sacrifice themselves"; groups like Fatah launched armed struggle against Israel

ISIS/ISIL/Islamic State

Founded 2013 as offshoot of AQI; broke from Al-Qaeda; declared caliphate across Iraq and Syria (2014); brutal tactics; attracted foreign fighters; defeated by 2017–19

AKP (Justice and Development Party)

Turkish Islamist-rooted party; founded by Erdoğan (2001); won 363/550 seats (2002); in power continuously since; Islamic conservative but claimed secular

Suez Canal

Built 1859–69; connects Mediterranean to Red Sea; nationalized by Nasser (1956); closed 1967–75; key British/French strategic interest; Egypt retains it

Gaza Strip

Small territory on Mediterranean; 350,000+ Palestinians in 1967; Israeli occupation 1967–2005; Hamas control since 2007; ongoing blockade; extremely dense, impoverished

West Bank

Palestinian territory captured by Israel in 1967; divided into Zones A/B/C by Oslo; 164,000+ Israeli settlers by late 1990s; PA controls Zone A; Israeli settlements continue to expand

Golan Heights

Syrian territory captured by Israel in 1967; provides strategic high ground over Damascus; Trump recognized Israeli sovereignty (2019)

Sinai Peninsula

Egyptian territory captured by Israel in 1967; returned under 1979 peace treaty; Israel withdrew from Sinai by 1982

Hama

Syrian city; site of 1982 massacre where Hafez al-Assad killed 10,000+ to crush Muslim Brotherhood uprising

Beirut

Lebanese capital; "Switzerland of the Middle East" before civil war; cosmopolitan center; devastated by civil war 1975–90; Sabra and Shatila refugee camps site of 1982 massacre; 2020 port explosion

Mecca

Holiest city in Islam; site of Ka'ba; pilgrimage site; Grand Mosque seized by Juhayman al-Utaybi (1979)

Baghdad

Capital of Abbasid Caliphate; conquered by Mongols (1258); taken by Ottomans and Safavids repeatedly; capital of modern Iraq; US invasion (2003)

Istanbul (Constantinople)

Byzantine capital conquered by Mehmed II (1453); Ottoman capital; renamed

Najaf and Karbala

Holiest Shi'a cities in Iraq; sites of shrines of Ali and Hussein; sacred to Shi'a Muslims; contested between Ottomans and Safavids

Kibbutz

Collective farms established by Jewish settlers in Palestine; land bought by Jewish National Fund

Tel Aviv

Major Israeli city; grew from Jewish immigrant settlement; Sharon made a controversial Temple Mount visit (2000) just before Second Intifada

Hijra

Muhammad's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE; marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar; Muhammad became ruler of Medina and established his governing model as both supreme political and religious leader

Battle of Karbala

680 CE; Hussein (Ali's son) killed by Umayyad forces; central Shi'a martyrdom narrative; commemorated annually during Muharram; deepened the Sunni-Shia divide permanently

Napoleon's Invasion of Egypt

1798; Little guy invaded to threaten British communications with India; brought intellectuals encouraging European interest in ancient world; defeated at Battle of the Nile by British fleet under Horatio Nelson; French stranded until 1801; created power vacuum Muhammad Ali eventually filled

Auspicious Event

June 1826; Mahmoud II crushed Janissary revolt; Janissaries ceased to exist as a military institution; allowed Ottoman reform to proceed; named as propaganda

Tanzimat

Ottoman reform era 1839–76; driven by Mustafa, Ali, and Fuad Pashas; included Hatt-i Sharif (1839), Hatt-i Humayan (1856), Land Code (1858), Mejelle (1876); aimed to modernize civil society, create equal citizenship, improve taxation and education

Crimean War

1853–56; Ottomans declared war on Russia; Britain and France intervened to prevent Russian expansion; fighting largely on Crimean Peninsula; Ottoman navy destroyed early; war ended but Russia supported new Balkan independence movements a generation later; Ottomans took massive loans funding their decline

Congress of Berlin

1878; ended Russo-Turkish War; Romania, Serbia, Montenegro gained full independence; Bulgaria divided; Russia and Austria gained territory; Britain received Cyprus; Ottomans lost 40% of Balkan territory and 20% of Balkan population; Red Crescent established as Islamic parallel to Red Cross

Ottoman Bankruptcy

1876; could no longer afford interest payments; Ottoman Public Debt Administration (1881) established with European representatives collecting Ottoman revenues to repay loans; effectively lost financial independence

Tobacco Protest

1891 Iran; Naser al-Din Shah granted G.F. Talbot 50-year tobacco monopoly; Shia ulama declared tobacco use religiously forbidden; nationwide boycott followed; Shah forced to cancel monopoly (1892); demonstrated power of ulama and weakness of Qajar state

Dinshaway Incident

1906 Egypt; British soldiers shot pigeons in Egyptian village; violence erupted killing a villager and one soldier; colonial court hanged 4 villagers and imprisoned 32; became major rallying point for Egyptian nationalism; contributed to Lord Cromer's resignation

Young Turk Revolution

1908; army officers (CUP) in Salonika demanded Abdul Hamid restore the constitution; he complied July 24 1908; anti-Western counter-revolution suppressed 1909; Abdul Hamid deposed; Mehmed V became figurehead; CUP effectively controlled empire

Adana Massacre

1909; approximately 20,000 Armenians killed in Adana by Muslim neighbours; government officials involved; CUP deflected blame onto reactionary loyalists; Armenians lost faith in CUP

Armenian Genocide

1915–16; WWI brought disaster for Armenians; suspicion of Armenian loyalties led to deportation orders; expanded to virtually all Armenians of Anatolia; over one million died from massacres, exhaustion, starvation trying to reach Russia, Syria, or Iran; many women and children absorbed into Turkish families; traditional Turkish position calls it defensive action during nationalist rebellion; Treaty of Lausanne (1923) granted amnesty

Sykes-Picot Agreement

May 1916; secret agreement between British Mark Sykes and French François Georges-Picot; divided Middle East into British and French zones of influence; contradicted promises made to Arabs via Husayn-McMahon Correspondence; roughly followed in creating mandate system after WWI

Arab Revolt

1916; Sharif Hussein led uprising against Ottomans; presented as Jihad; led militarily by his son Faisal with T.E. Lawrence attached; captured Aqaba (1917); Arabs pushed north while British moved into Palestine; Faisal entered Damascus October 1918; mostly tribal fighters from Arabia rather than broad Arab nationalist movement

Nakba

"Catastrophe"; 1948; 750,000+ Palestinians fled or were expelled during 1948 Arab-Israeli War; accompanied by massacres as Israeli forces cleared villages of "strategic importance"; only 150,000 Palestinians remained in Israel by armistice 1949; refugees settled in Gaza, West Bank, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan; right of return never implemented despite UN Resolution 194

Suez Crisis

1956; Nasser nationalized Suez Canal after US withdrew funding for Aswan Dam; Britain, France, Israel invaded; US and USSR both condemned attack; UN ceasefire; invaders withdrew; Egypt retained canal; Nasser became pan-Arab hero despite military defeat; marked end of British and French power in Middle East; US became dominant Western power in region

United Arab Republic

1958–61; union of Syria and Egypt; proposed by Ba'th Party and Syrian military; dominated by Egypt from the start; Egyptian field marshal purged Syrian military of communists and opponents; Syrian military staged coup and withdrew Syria from UAR in 1961; demonstrated limits of Arab unity in practice

Operation Blue Bat

1958; US landed 15,000 marines in Lebanon during civil crisis; President Chamoun tried to run for unconstitutional second term; armed opposition groups formed; Americans intervened to stabilize situation; supported Fuad Shihab as compromise president

June War / Six-Day War

June 5–10 1967; Israel launched surprise attack destroying Egyptian, Syrian, Jordanian air forces within hours; captured Sinai, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Golan Heights in six days; humiliating Arab defeat; UN Resolution 242 called for Israeli withdrawal; Israeli settlement building began; occupation of Palestinian territories began

Black September

1970; Palestinians hijacked four airplanes; Jordanian military cracked down hard; PLO and fedayeen groups forced out of Jordan; named after month it occurred; PLO relocated to Lebanon; one expelled group later kidnapped Israeli athletes at Munich Olympics (1972)

Munich Massacre

1972; Black September fedayeen group kidnapped 11 Israeli athletes at Munich Olympics; demanded release of Palestinian prisoners in Israel; rejected; shootout with German police; all 11 Israeli athletes killed; Israel responded by bombing PLO camps