SG3- Afghanistan Case study

Who challenged the sovereignty of the Rabbani government in Afghanistan in 1996? 

Taliban

What were the causes of this challenge to sovereignty?

• Multi-ethnic society – Rabbani was Tajik (Afghanistan is 42% Pahtun, 27% Tajik, 9% Uzbek , 9% Hazara – all have different languages, cultures). Hard for one leader to unite the country

• Weak governance/poor state apparatus – years of conflict (Soviet war 1979 – 1989) had impacted state apparatus. Rabbani was not elected as President – he was the sole candidate and there was no election process

• Population tired of conflict – country fractured by civil war since 1989 – Taliban promised to regain peace and security

What were the impacts of this challenge to sovereignty on people?

• Strict Sharia law and impact on women – public executions and punishments at Afghan soccer stadiums, Ban on TV, music and internet, girls forbidden to go to school, women not allowed to work outside the home (created crisis in healthcare and education), Burqa enforced and women had to be accompanied by a male relative when outdoors  

• Punishments enforced – Adultery = stoned to death, women leaving their home without a male relative risked being beaten by officers of the ‘ministry for the protection of virtue and prevention of vice

• Refugees/IDPs – by 2001 there were 6m refugees (40% of population) due to oppressive regime. Also, Taliban did not end civil war and access to food, clean water and employment in cities declined under their rule

What were the impacts of this challenge to sovereignty on place?

• Impact on places in Afghanistan – Buddhas of Bamiyan – a world heritage site ˃1500 years old blown up by Taliban, provided refuge to Osama bin Laden and his Al Qaeda organisation 

• Impact on other places – Only Saudi Arabia, UAE and Pakistan recognised Taliban as legitimate gov of Afghanistan. Taliban’s brand of Islamist radicalism threatened to destabilise other countries in region e.g. Iran, China, Uzbekistan and Pakistan – public support for Taliban is high in Pakistan’s NW frontier province and their have been uprisings by pro-Taliban groups. Al Qaeda trained terrorists in Afghanistan and mounted the attack on the World Trade Centre in NY, Sept 11^th 2001. 95% of refugees fled to Pakistan and Iran placing pressure on the resources within these countries  

What key event took place in Sept 2001?

Al Quaeda attacked the World Trade Centre in NY. US invaded Afghanistan

What key event took place in Dec 2001?

UN became involved in Afghanistan, ISAF (International Security Assistance Force) was set up by the UN Security Council

Who took over military operations in Afghanistan from the UN in 2003?

NATO

What key event took place in 2004?

1^ST democratic elections held. Hamid Karzai installed as 1^st elected president

Who was given full responsibility for security in Afghanistan in 2015?

ANSF (Afghan National Security Force) 10,000 NATO  troops remain to train, advise and assist ANSF

What peace deal was signed in Feb 2020 between the US and the Taliban and what did it?

Doha Agreement – NATO occupation will end if Taliban agree not to form an alliance with terrorist groups that would threaten the security of the US and its allies

What did US troops do in May 2021?

Withdrawal of US troops – Taliban begins offensive into Afghan- government controlled territory

What key event took place in August 2021?

Afghan government collapses, President Ashraf Ghani flees to UAE. Taliban take control, Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan established almost 20 years after their fall in 2001

How did a lack of territorial integrity allow insurgency by the Taliban to occur between 2003 and 2021?

Durand border between Afghanistan and Pakistan is an open border with little security. A large section separates Afghanistan and FATA (Federally Administered Tribal Area) – a largely lawless and mountainous area. Taliban were able to escape to FATA after being driven out by NATO. Lack of territorial integrity meant insurgents could move freely across the border to mount attacks

Global governance by UN/ NATO

Short term strategies:

• ISAF set up by UN in Dec 2001 

• ISAF’S initial aim was to make areas safe/counter Taliban insurgency

Long term strategies: 

• ISAF Taken over by NATO IN 2003. 

• Assist with running of democratic & fair elections (1^st election 2004) – this helped to resolve sovereignty issues. 

• Support gov in enforcing rule of law and upholding human rights – new gov brought in constitution which gave equality to men and women. 

• Train ANSF to strengthen state apparatus – ANSF took over security of country 2015  

Global governance by Afghan govt.

Short term strategies:

• Hamid Karzai as interim leader (2001-04) reestablished political control in Dec 2001 

• Hamid Karzai collaborated with the UN e.g. ISAF increased security, initially in Kabul where the Interim administration was based. ISAF also set up & trained the ANSF to strengthen state apparatus 

• A transition to democracy began. In 2004, the first elections were run 

• *The 2004 Constitution was adopted which represented the supreme law of the country. It restored gender equality; freedom of speech & protection for ethnic minority groups; & a right to democracy with an elected president & parliament every 5 years. This strengthened rule of law 

Long term strategies:

• Hamid Karzai collaborated with UNHCR, Pakistan & Iran on the successful repatriation of refugees under the Solution Strategy, first drafted in 2012 

• The Afghan Govt collaborated with NATO to strengthen the rule of law. For example, NATO made a bilateral agreement with the Afghan Govt to train & provide military equipment to the ANSF. In Jan 2015, the ANSF took over full responsibility for the security of the country with only a reduced NATO presence to remain in an advisory & assistance role 

• Democracy was restored with the first election held in 2004 & every 5 years thereafter. The Afghan parliament also had female MPs & from ethnic minorities 

• Opium farming was made illegal. Farmers encouraged to grow alternative cash crops e.g. wheat & pomegranate. 

• The Afghan Government collaborated with UN, NATO & NGOs which enabled reconstruction & development projects to take place in areas made safe by NATO troops. The aim was to improve access to services & to empower local communities 

Global governance by UNHCR

Short term strategies:

• Refugee camps set up e.g. Kacha Garhi in Pakistan which had 70,000 refugees living there at its max. 

• Worked with NGOs such as MSF to provide medical care 

• Welcome kit given e.g. stove, food rations, tent, blanket, set of clothes. 

• Education e.g. UNICEF’s school in a box where materials for an entire classroom are packed into a portable box. 

• Land mine awareness training 

• Drinking water via standpipes, bottled water delivered to camps.  

• Sanitation – pit latrines 

Long term strategies:

• Repatriation – Solutions Strategy brokered between Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan.  

• Encashment Centres – each family receives $200 cash grant on return 

• 700 Refugee housing units set up across Afghanistan (collaboration with IKEA) 

• 600 Afghan families benefitted from Cash for Shelter – Cash and technical help to build own homes

Global governance by Caritas

Short term strategies:

• Ran poverty relief projects in Pakistan to support Afghan refugees 

Long term strategies:

• Worked with UNHCR to repatriate Afghans from Pakistani cities as they had local knowledge of where refugees were located. Caritas made UNHCR aware of 8000 families living in Lahore. 

• Collaboration helped 2000 Afghan families to be voluntarily repatriated

Global governance by Afghanaid

Long term strategies:

• NGO focuses on sustainable development of poor communities living in safe rural areas of Afghanistan.  

• Bottom-up approach, uses appropriate technology.  

• Community development councils set up in over 3000 villages – provides expertise and funds for building of schools, roads, bridges etc. 

• Kitchen gardens – provided seeds, tools and training 

• Taught a woman to sew and provided her with a sewing machine. Saved to buy other sewing machines and now runs a seamstress school in village to teach other women how to sew. 

• Men get loans to buy beehive and produce honey – surplus honey sold at market. Others in community taught how to do beekeeping

Consequences of global governance for local communities in the short term

UNHCR refugee camps:  

+ve people provided with necessities to ensure their survival – tent/blanket/clothing/medical assistance etc. Camps also provide a safe haven from fighting. 

 -ve poor living conditions may lead to disease. People may experience language/cultural barriers in camps or be made to feel unwelcome by host country because they are dependent on handouts. 

 ISAF:   

+ve people may feel safer/protected, may feel relief after oppression from Taliban has been removed.  

-ve Removal of Taliban required military intervention – initial air strikes would have affected civilians causing death and injuries. This may have inspired some Afghans to defend their religion and their homeland by becoming Taliban insurgents fighting against foreign troops

Longer term opportunities arising from global governance

• 1^st elections after fall of Taliban held in 2004 and every 5 years until 2021 – sovereignty restored during this period. Newly adopted Afghan constitution stated that men and women had equal rights and duties before the law.  

• ANSF took control of security within Afghanistan in 2015 – seen as evidence of strengthened state apparatus, greater stability within country. ANSF built up to 300,000 troops.  

• Greater security led to socio-economic development through positive multiplier effect: GDP grew 6x 2001-2017. 

• Economic growth and political stability meant Afghan refugees felt safe to return home – repatriation led to 20% increase in Afghanistan’s population. Refugees reduced to 1m in 2016. 

• ISAF troops secured areas where reconstruction work was being undertaken – infrastructure was improved. 

• UNHCR used some of the RHUs to provide community facilities e.g. create classrooms, health centres – access increased to these services.  

• Increased socio-economic development

• Afghanaid made a difference to the lives of the poor living in rural areas. Most of their basic needs were met as a result of having greater income. They will be less likely to support the Taliban as a consequence – this strengthens sovereignty

Longer term challenges arising from global governance

• Repatriation led to 20% increase in Afghanistan’s population and strain on country’s resources e.g. not enough houses, jobs etc. 

• Over 170,000 Afghans estimated to have been killed in the conflict, 30,000 wounded. NATO’s presence in the country angered many people and increased support for the Taliban. Taliban insurgency continued from 2003 until NATO troops withdrew in 2021. Terrorist attacks such as suicide bomb attacks in Kabul were mounted to undermine sovereignty of the elected government.  

• ISAF supported the Afghan government in enforcing an opium ban (ANSF trained in counter narcotics activities). However, source of livelihood removed for rural farmers and replaced with unprofitable crops. (Afghanaid projects only took place in government-controlled territory).  Failure to secure economic growth in these areas led to a disaffected population in some regions allowing the Taliban to gain popularity (Taliban funded their insurgency with trade of opium crops). In Feb 2021, the Taliban had control of 52% of the country.  

• In 2014 Afghanistan was identified as the world’s 7^th most fragile state due to administrative corruption, drug smuggling and extremism.  

• Despite spending £64bn on security related reconstruction, the ANSF were poorly led and corrupt. (Taliban forces were highly motivated and organised despite being lesser in numbers). Once US military withdrew, ANSF lacked knowledge to maintain aircraft and vehicles. ANSF unable to fight Taliban advance – just 10 days for Taliban to take control. 

Long term global governance was not successful – Taliban established Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and restored Sharia law Aug 2021 – almost 20 years after their fall. Many policies under previous rule restored including oppression of women/girls. 80% of international funding has been lost due to widespread disapproval of regime and food insecurity is widespread. Hospitals do not have enough medication/staff to treat curable diseases leading to an increase in child deaths