bio 220 exam one

lecture one

lecture one

What are the two main regions of the

body?

1. Axial Region (Goes down midline of the

body)

2. Appendicular Region (limbs)

What three structures are in the Axial

Region?

Axial Region (Goes down midline of the

body)

a) Head

b) Neck

c) Trunk (has 3 parts)

What are the three parts of the Trunk (Axial

Region)? What organs does each part

contain?

1) Thorax (chest area). Above diaphragm.

Contains heart and lungs.

2) Abdomen (not called the stomach!). Contains

the digestive organs

3) Pelvis (covered by the G-String) Contains

urinary and reproductive organs

What makes up the Upper Limbs of the

Appendicular Region?

ppendicular Region - limbs

a) Upper Limbs

1) Axilla (armpit)

2) Arm (shoulder to elbow)

3) Forearm (elbow to wrist). Don’t

confuse with arm!

4) Wrist

5) Hand: 4 fingers with 3 phalanges each;

thumb with 2 phalanges

What is the term for the thumb?

pollex

What is the term for the arm?

brachium

What is the term for the area where blood

is drawn? In what body region is it found?

Antecubital fossa; it is in the brachium

What makes up the Lower Limbs of the

Appendicular Region?

Lower Limbs

1) Thigh

(hip to knee). Don’t confuse with leg!

2) Leg (knee to ankle)

3) Ankle

4) Foot: 5 digits; big toe is the hallux

What is the term for the big toe?

hallux

What is the term for the area behind the

knee?

popliteal fossa

What bone contains the area behind the

knee?

the back of the femur

What describes ANATOMICAL

POSITION?

ANATOMICAL POSITION:

 The person is standing up straight

 The palms face anteriorly

 The knees, elbow, and neck are

straight (not bent)

 The toes point anteriorly, but the

fingers point inferiorly

If a person starts in anatomical position

and then pronates their hands 90

degrees, which way do the palms face?

thye face each other

If a person starts in anatomical position

and then pronates their hands 180

degrees, which way do the palms face?

posteriorly

What is Superior?

Superior: towards the top of the head

“The head is superior to the abdomen”

What is Inferior?

Inferior: towards the bottom of the feet

“The pelvis is inferior to the neck”

What is Anterior?

Anterior (ventral): towards the front of the body

“The breastbone is anterior to the spine”

“The nose is anterior to the eyes.”

What is Posterior?

Posterior (dorsal): towards the back of the body

“The spine is posterior to the heart.”

What is Medial?

Medial (not middle!): towards the midline.

“The heart is medial to the lungs.”

What is Lateral?

Lateral: towards the sides, away from the midline

of the body.

“The Lungs are lateral to the heart.”

“The arms are lateral to the chest”

What is Proximal?

Proximal: Close to the point of origin of the body

part or the point of attachment of a limb to the

body trunk (in most cases, closer to the heart).

“The elbow is proximal to the wrist.”

Don’t confuse with superior

What is Distal?

Distal: away from the point of origin (in most

cases, away from the heart).

“The fingers are distal to the wrist.”

“The knee is distal to the thigh”

NOTE: Do not get inferior mixed up with distal.

Inferior means towards the feet, and distal means

farther from the heart.

What is Superficial?

Superficial (external): Toward or at the body

surface

“The skin is superficial to the muscles.”

What is Deep?

Deep (internal): Away from the body surface;

more internal. Do NOT use the term “interior”.

“Bones are deep to the muscles.”

“The lungs are deep to the skin”

What is Intermediate?

Intermediate: Between a more medial and a

more lateral structure “The collarbone is

intermediate between the breastbone and

shoulder”

What is the Frontal (coronal) Plane?

Frontal (coronal) Plane: Divides body or organ

into anterior/posterior.

What is the Sagittal Plane?

Sagittal Plane: Divides body or organ into left and

right.

a) Midsagittal (median) plane: down the

midline, dividing EQUALLY right and left.

b) Parasagittal plane: divides into

UNEQUAL right and left parts.

What is the Transverse Plane?

Transverse Plane (Cross sec): Divides body or

organ into superior/inferior parts

What are the 3 ventral (anterior)

Body Cavities?

Ventral Body Cavities

1. Thoracic cavity (contains lungs and heart)

2. Abdominal cavity (contains digestive

organs)

3. Pelvic cavity (contains reproductive

organs)

What separates the thoracic and abdominal

cavities?

The thoracic and abdominal cavities are separated

by the diaphragm.

What are the 2 Body Membranes and the

space that separates them?

Body Membranes

1. Parietal serosa (lines the body wall)

2. Visceral serosa (lines the organ such as

heart or lungs)

3. Serous cavity (space between the parietal

and visceral serosa; contains fluid)

What is Flexion/Extension?

Flexion (reduces angle of joint)

Extension (increases angle of the joint; returns

part to anatomical position). Hyperextension

goes even farther than anatomical position.

What are Abduction/ Adduction/ Rotation/

Circumduction?

Abduction (takes body part away from midline in

the frontal plane)

Adduction (returns body part to midline in the

frontal plane)

Rotation (to pivot on the axis of a bone, such as

shaking head “no”)

Circumduction: (Using the body part to draw a

circle in the air)

What is internal and external rotation?

Internal rotation: to move a limb towards the

midline of the body in the transverse plane

External rotation: to move a limb away from the

midline of the body in the transverse plane

What is Inversion/Eversion?

Inversion (turns foot toward midline in the

frontal plane)

Eversion (turns foot away from midline in the

frontal plane)

What is Dorsiflexion/Plantarflexion?

Dorsiflexion: flexion of the ankle joint; to raise

toes up in the air (sagittal plane)

Plantarflexion: extension of the ankle joint; to

point the toes downward (sagittal plane)

What is Protraction/Retraction?

Protraction: sticks body part out anteriorly

(jutting out the jaw)

Retraction: opposite movement to protraction

(pulls body part posteriorly, such as the scapula)

What is Elevation/Depression?

Elevation: lifting a body part superiorly (raising

shoulders upward)

Depression: moving the elevated part inferiorly

(pulls body part inferiorly)

What is Opposition?

Opposition (brings thumb to touch tips of fingers)

What is Pronation and Supination?

Pronation: In the ankle, pronation is turning the

sole of foot away from midline; tri-plane

movement of eversion, abduction, and

plantarflexion. In the wrists, pronation is turning

the palms from anterior to posterior.

Supination: In the ankle, supination is turning the

sole of the foot toward midline; tri-plane

movement of inversion, adduction, and

dorsiflexion. In the wrists, supination is turning

the palms from posterior to anterior.

What is prone, and how does it differ from

pronation?

Prone: a POSITION, not a movement; body is lying

face down. Pronation is a movement.

What is supine, and how does it differ from

supination?

Supine: a POSITION, not a movement; body is

lying on the back. Supination is a movement.

What is the difference between

Adduction/Abduction and

Flexion/Extension at the shoulders and

hips?

Adduction/Abduction: moving your arms/thighs

away from the body laterally, in the frontal plane.

Flexion/Extension: moving your arms/thighs

away from the body in front of you, in the sagittal

plane.

lecture three

lecture three

What is a TISSUE?

 A group of cells, usually similar, which share

a particular function.

 Each organ is made up of tissues.

What happens during the process of

cell differentiation?

Each cell develops a characteristic set of

structural features, and each cell has to contribute

one piece toward the overall function of the

organism, so that all the vital functions can be

covered. During differentiation, cells in nearby

locations become able to work together. After

differentiation, cells do not change their function

throughout their life cycle.

What does the presence of large

numbers of microvilli on the

exposed surfaces of epithelial cells

indicate?

That this is the area where absorption and

secretion take place. These cells are transportation

specialists. They are probably located along

portions of the digestive and urinary tracts.

What are the two types of tissues?

1) Epithelium

2) Connective Tissue

What are the two categories of

connective tissue?

1) Fibrous (proper) connective tissue

2) Special connective tissue

What are the 5 types of Proper

connective tissue?

1) Adipose

2) Reticular

3) Loose

4) Dense regular

5) Dense irregular

What are the 5 types of Special

connective tissue?

1) Cartilage

2) Bone

3) Blood

4) Muscle

5) Nerves

What is a sheet of cells that separate

one region from another?

Epithelium

What supplies oxygen and nutrients

to the epithelium?

Blood vessels in the connective tissue

What are the three functions of

epithelia?

1) To separate one region from the other; e.g.

skin, stomach lining, blood vessel lining,

intestine, heart.

2) Forms exocrine glands

3) The epithelial cells are the primary type of

tissue that protects the underlying

structures

What sits on top of connective tissue

and is connected to it by the

basement membrane?

Epithelia

What is the basement membrane

made of?

The basement membrane is made of protein fibers

What is the ONLY function of the basement membrane?

To attach the epithelium to the connective tissue beneath it

Where do epithelia get its oxygen

and nutrients from?

From the blood vessels in the connective tissue

beneath the basement membrane

What are the upper and lower

surfaces of epithelium called?

Basal Side (faces the basement membrane)

Apical side (faces the lumen or space)

What are the two different types of

epithelium?

1) Simple Epithelium

2) Stratified Epithelium

What are the 4 types of simple

epithelium?

1) Simple squamous

2) Simple cuboidal

3) Simple columnar

4) Pseudostratified columnar

What are the 4 types of stratified

epithelium?

1) Stratified squamous

2) Stratified cuboidal

3) Stratified columnar

4) Transitional

Which type of epithelium is the

thinnest?

Simple squamous

What epithelium only has one layer?

Simple Epithelium

Which epithelium has flat cells that

allow for diffusion of materials

between cells? Where is it found?

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Found in the lungs and kidney glomerulus

Which type of epithelium is cube

shaped and allows for a lot of

material going from one

compartment to another and also has

plenty of room for organelles?

Where is it found?

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Found in the kidney tubules

What type of epithelium has one

layer of rectangular shaped cells?

Simple columnar

Which type of epithelium is found in

the trachea? What special cell is

associated with them, and what does

it produce?

Pseudo-Stratified Epithelium

Associated with GOBLET CELLS, which

produce mucous

Where is pseudostratified epithelium

found?

Trachea

What type of epithelium always has

cilia on their apical surfaces? Where

is it found?

Pseudo-Stratified Epithelium

Found in the trachea

What type of epithelium has more

than one cell layer?

Stratified Epithelium

In stratified epithelium, if the basal

cells are one shape and the apical

cells are another shape, which layer

is the epithelium named after?

it is named by the apical layer. For example, if the

basal layer is cuboidal shaped, but the apical

layer is squamous shaped, it would be named

stratified squamous epithelium.

What epithelium is found in the

regions of the body where lots of

abrasions or wear and tear occur?

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

What are the two types of Stratified

Squamous Epithelium?

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Non-Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Which Stratified Squamous

Epithelium is waterproof and found

in the thick, dry areas of the skin?

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Which Stratified Squamous

Epithelium is moist skin (like what

is found lining the mouth and

esophagus)?

Non-Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

What type of epithelium usually

consists of two layers that are square

shaped and there is almost no

diffusion between them, and is

usually found in tubes associated

with glands? Where is it found?

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium-sweat gland

What type of epithelium is usually

two layers, is rectangular, and allows

for no diffusion between them?

Stratified Columnar Epithelium-

What type of epithelium is relatively

rare, providing protection along

portions of the pharynx, urethra, and

anus?

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

What epithelium can stretch and

change shape? Where is it found?

Transitional epithelium- Urinary Bladder

What type of tissue lines the urinary

bladder?

Transitional epithelium

What are the 2 types of connective

tissues?

Fibrous (proper) Connective tissue

Special connective tissue

What are the functions of connective

tissues?

1) Defend the body from invasion by

microorganisms

2) Connective tissues provide some

protection for delicate organs, but

epithelium is the primary tissue that

protects underlying structures

3) Establish a structural framework for the

body

What are the five types of proper

(fibrous) connective tissue?

1) Adipose connective tissue

2) Reticular (lymph nodes)

3) Loose connective tissue

4) Dense Irregular connective tissue

5) Dense Regular connective tissue

What type of tissue has lots of

adipocytes? What is stored inside?

Adipose Tissue

Fat is stored inside

What tissue are lymph nodes?

Reticular

What is the least specialized

connective tissue?

Areolar

What type of tissue’s main cell type

is Fibroblast and is common in areas

just deep to epithelium?

Loose connective tissue (Areolar)

How is areolar (loose) connective

tissue formed?

formed by the differentiation of embryonic

connective tissue

Skeletal muscle is bound together by

what type of tissue?

Areolar

How is dense connective tissue

formed?

formed by the differentiation of embryonic

connective tissue

What are the main characteristics of

Dense Irregular connective tissue?

 Has lots of collagen fibers

 Fibers have irregular position; no pattern

 Extremely strong in all directions

 Found in areas of body where strength is

needed (joint capsules and deeper layer of

dermis)

What are the main characteristics of

Dense Regular connective tissue and

an example of where it can be

found?

 Has lots of collagen fibers that have a

pattern and run in same direction. Stronger

than Irregular, but in one direction.

 Ligaments and tendons (they are not

muscle tissue)

What tissue type are tendons?

Dense regular connective tissue (they are

not muscle tissue!)

What are five three types of special

connective tissue?

1. Cartilage

2. Bone

3. Blood

4. Muscles

5. Nervous tissue

What is the main cell type of

cartilage?

Chondrocytes

What type of tissues extracellular

matrix is dense collagen, almost

solid, very rigid, and avascular?

Cartilage

What are the three types of cartilage,

and where is each one found? Which

is most common?

1. Hyaline Cartilage (joints; most common)

2. Elastic Cartilage (ear)

3. Fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs)

What type of tissues’ extracellular

matrix is solid and full of minerals?

What is the main cell type?

Bone

The main cell type is Osteocyte