Lecture #5 - Electoral Systems Design

Direct Democracy

Citizens exercise authority without going through representatives. Ex. referendums.

Representative Democracy

Citizens choose representatives to exercise authority on their behalf. Elections are an instrument of this form.

Formalistic Representation

Refers to institutional arrangements that precede and initiate representation. Includes authorization (means by which representatives gain their position) and accountability.

Symbolic Representation

Refers to the meaning that representation holds to the represented. Ex. Black or Indigenous MPs.

Descriptive Representation

Has to do with the extent to which a representative resembles those being represented. Ex. race, gender, socio-demographic similarity.

Substantive Representation

Has to do with the activity of representatives — actions taken on behalf of the represented, and how well they reflect the concerns/interests of constituents. Ex. How representatives champion childcare, local water issues, etc.

Electoral Regulations

An umbrella set of rules and policies that more broadly concern elections. Ex. placement of polling stations, campaign finance donations, who’s allowed to vote, electoral management boards.

Electoral Systems

The method by which votes are translated into seats in a given assembly.

Ridings, ballot structure, district magnitude, formula

What are the components of an electoral system?

Riding/District/Constituency

Geographic area from which voters elect politicians. Can be small or large, but is always geographically bounded.

Ridings in the Canadian Context

• Very diverse in size due to the electoral quotient, a formula used to ensure there’s a similar amount of people per riding.

• The process of redistricting is managed by Elections Canada

• Size and numbers of districts is determined by principle of representation by population

  • Less populous provinces have smaller numbers of seats, and vice versa

• Section 37 of CA 1867 sets a minimum number of seats for each province (no province or territory can have fewer MPs than they do senators)

Structure of a Ballot

The way election-day decisions/citizen expression of preferences is structured.

Categorical Ballots

On election day, a voter makes a single either/or decision. This is simple to use, easy to understand, and used in Single-Member Plurality in Canada. A voter expresses support for a single candidate or party. Low barrier to entry of electoral participation.

Ordinal Ballots

Ranked choice ballots, wherein voters are asked to rank candidates in order of preference. This is used in alternative vote and Proportional Representation-Single Transferable Vote (PR-STV) systems. Greater choice, but higher barrier of entry.

Dividual Ballots

A ballot where a voter may split their support between multiple parties. Used in mixed-member proportional and majoritarian systems. Voters can cast a vote for a candidate, and a separate vote for a party. This is used in New Zealand and Germany, and its quite complex.

District Magnitude

The number of representatives per each district.

District Magnitude of a Single Member System

Magnitude of 1. Used in the Canadian system, but relatively rare — most democracies have a higher magnitude.

Characteristics of a Single-Member System

One representative per district, clear lines of accountability and communication.

Multi-Member Systems

More than one representative per district, multiple lines of communication and accountability. Can be challenging.

Formula

The quota/percentage/means by which we determine which candidate has won.

Plurality Formula

Person with the highest number of votes wins (ex. first-past-the-post). Used in Canada.

Proportional Formula

Percentage of votes is translated to a percentage of seats.

Majority Formula

The candidate who wins 50% + 1 is awarded a seat. Often used in two-round voting/runoff election/preferential voting systems.

Majority Electoral Systems Family

• Designed to ensure the winning candidate has the support of at least 50% + 1 of the voting public

• District magnitude of 1

• Uses ordinal ballot systems: alternative, two-round/runoff voting

• Used in Australia, France, etc.

Proportional Electoral Systems Family

• The share of votes matches the share of seats

• District magnitude is always greater than 1 to allow for seats to be allocated relative to vote share

• Ballot structure is categorical — express a single preference for a party

  • Ex. party-list systems

Mixed Electoral Systems Family

• Use a combination of multiple electoral systems in a single elected body

• Voters can choose a candidate for their district and a different party on a single ballot

• Part of the elected assembly is often chosen in single-member districts, the remainder is chosen through party-list proportional representation

• Used in Germany

Plurality Electoral Systems Family

• Seat is allocated to the candidate who wins most votes in a riding

• Categorical ballot, district magnitude of 1

• Does not require a candidate to recieve a majority (more than 50%) of the vote to be awarded the seat

• Used in Canada, Britain, India, etc.

Single-Member Plurality in Canada

• 338 Constituencies

• Categorical ballot structure

• District magnitude of 1

• Plurality electoral formula

Why do Electoral Systems Matter

• Shape Parties’ Campaigns: Tells parties whether they need to appeal to the entire country, or just a single district. In RCV and alternative vote ranked systems, there’s an incentive for candidates to strike a conciliatory tone — don’t want to slight a first-choice candidate and be left off the ballot entirely

• Shape Legislatures: Determines the number of parties represented in the legislature, influences the efficiency/efficacy of the assembly, and influences the need for coalition-building.

Finland’s System of Representation

• Proportional representation, 199 elected representatives

• Parliamentary republic with a Prime Minister as the Head of Government and the President as the Head of State

• Parties with diffused support are able to gain seats, influences coalition-building

The number of parties in contention, parties’ approaches to seeking votes

Each party system is distinguished by:

Disproportionality

The difference between the % of votes earned by parties and the % of seats awarded to a given party. Varies by system type and individual election.

Gallagher Index

A least-squares index measure of the disproportionality between vote share and seat share.

Effects of a Plurality Election Formula

• SMP is not a proportional system, destabilizes parties without geographically concentrated support

• Over-rewards large parties (Conservatives and Liberals) and creates more majorities than the popular vote would have

• Contributes to regionalism — governing caucus might not need to have a lot of support in a region to win

• Wasted votes and surplus votes

Wasted Votes

Some votes cast do not contribute to electing a representative (ie. votes cast for losing parties in a riding in an SMP system don’t determine seat allocation in any way)

Causes of Disproportionality

• A party wins by a large margin of votes

• A party wins many small ridings (small # of votes but many seats)

Surplus Votes

Votes cast for a party beyond the line of a majority do not contribute to their election.

Electoral Reform Attempts in Canada

• 1979 Pepins-Roberts Task Force on Canadian Unity: Mixed System

• 2002 Law Commission of Canada Report: PR System

• Special Committee on Electoral Reform (EERE): PR System

  • Trudeau abandons project after extensive public consultation cycle

Result of Different Voting Systems

• Different voting behaviors — A high percentage of people in Canada vote strategically, and introducing a more proportional system would alter that behavior

• Different political party behaviors — Could lead to new campaign strategies, rhetoric, etc.

Value judgements

Assessments of electoral systems reflect: ________. Ex. proportionality is not intrinsically fair or unfair/intrinsically desirable quality in a system — its up to the analyst to decide