geo 11/12/13

Air Pollution

The concentration of trace substances at levels greater than they occur in average air, which is typically composed of $78\%$ nitrogen, $21\%$ oxygen, and less than $1\%$ argon.

Sulfur Dioxide

An air pollutant produced primarily by factories and power plants through the burning of coal.

PM 2.5

A specific type of particulate matter consisting of small dust particles, often found in high concentrations in developing countries in Asia and Africa.

Photochemical Smog

Ground-level air pollution formed when hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight.

Temperature Inversion

A condition where air at the surface is cooler than the air higher up, causing warm air to trap pollutants near the surface of the Earth.

Acid Deposition

The accumulation and eventual deposit of acids, including sulfuric and nitric acid, in the form of rain, snow, fog, or soot.

Ohio River Valley

An industrial region where coal-burning plants emit pollutants that result in precipitation to the East with pH levels between $4.2$ and $4.7$.

Greenhouse Effect

The warming of the Earth's surface caused by carbon dioxide trapping radiation that would otherwise be reemitted into the atmosphere.

Ozone Layer

A layer of gas in the stratosphere, located between $6$ and $30$ miles above the surface, that prevents ultraviolet rays from reaching Earth.

CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)

Stable, odorless, and nonflammable pollutants used as coolants and propellants that were discovered to be lowering ozone concentration.

Roland and Molina

The two scientists at the University of California at Irvine who, in 1974, called for a ban on CFCs due to their threat to the ozone layer.

Montreal Protocol

A 1987 international treaty in which $36$ countries agreed to cut CFC emissions by $35\%$ by the year 2000.

Consumptive Water Use

Water use categorized by the evaporation of water, primarily common in agricultural irrigation.

Nonconsumptive Water Use

Water use where the liquid returns to nature in liquid form, typically seen in industrial and municipal sewer systems.

Point Source Pollution

Pollution that enters a body of water at a specific, identifiable location, such as a wastewater treatment pipe.

Nonpoint Source Pollution

Pollution originating from large, diffuse areas that is harder to control, with agriculture being the primary source.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The amount of oxygen consumed by decomposing organic waste; high levels can lead to oxygen-starved water and fish kills.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Conservation

The sustainable use and management of natural resources to meet human needs, such as consuming trees at a rate slower than they are replaced.

Preservation

The maintenance of resources in their present condition with as little human impact as possible, based on the right of nature to exist.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

A technology that captures carbon emissions from power plants and industries and stores them underground before they reach the atmosphere.

Nonrenewable resources

Energy sources like coal, natural gas, and petroleum that form so slowly they cannot be renewed during a human time scale.

Renewable resources

Energy sources with an essentially unlimited supply, such as water, wind, and solar, that are not depleted when used by people.

Nuclear fission

A process occurring when a neutron slams into a larger atom, forcing it to split into two smaller atoms and releasing heat and energy.

Ceramic pellets

Fuel fabricated from uranium ore where one small pellet produces the same amount of energy as $256 ext{ gallons}$ of petroleum.

Spent fuel rods

Highly radioactive rods that are no longer efficient and must be stored safely in heavy water pools or cement casks for decades.

Yucca Mountain

A proposed underground repository in Nevada for nuclear waste that was halted due to geological concerns like rock fractures, an active volcano, and 32 earthquake fault lines.

Nuclear fusion

An alternative process that fuses hydrogen atoms to create helium, currently a work in progress because scientists cannot yet manage it on a sustained basis.

Penstock

A channel or pipe in a hydroelectric power plant that speeds up water flow to provide more force to spin a turbine.

Run of river system

A hydroelectric method where the natural movement of water in a river, rather than a drop or dam, is used to generate electricity.

Wind turbine

A device that uses blades to collect kinetic energy from the wind to turn an electric generator.

Geothermal energy

Heat from the Earth, derived from the Greek words 'geo' (Earth) and 'thermae' (heat).

Inner core

The center of the Earth made of solid iron, measuring about $150 ext{ miles}$ in diameter with temperatures reaching $11,000 ext{ degrees Fahrenheit}$.

Rim of Fire

An area in the Pacific known for concentrated geothermal resources where countries like the Philippines and Indonesia harness energy.

Passive solar systems

Systems that capture solar energy without special devices, such as using south-facing windows or dark surfaces to absorb and release heat.

Photovoltaic cells

Also known as solar panels, these devices directly convert light from the sun into electricity.

Indirect active solar

A system using parabolic troughs to focus sun rays on a tube of synthetic oil, which is then used to create steam for electricity.

Energy efficiency

Often called 'the first fuel,' it is the measure of how effectively energy is converted into useful output by reducing energy waste.

Intermittency

A challenge associated with wind and solar power where energy is not produced continuously, necessitating solutions like battery storage.

Urban Sprawl

The uncontrolled expansion of urban areas.

Density

The number of people or units per area (e.g., residents per square kilometer).

Congestion

Overcrowding, typically resulting in reduced mobility and increased travel times.

Transit Ridership

The number of passengers using public transportation services.

Gentrification

The process of transforming urban neighborhoods from predominantly lower-income to higher-income residents.

Permanent Underclass

A segment of the population unable to escape poverty and often facing systemic social and economic challenges.

Fossil Fuels

Energy sources formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals, including coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Proven Reserves

Deposits of resources that have been discovered and can be extracted with reasonable accuracy.

Unconventional Resources

Resources that are not economically viable to extract using current technology.

CAFE Standards

Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards set by the government to improve the average fuel efficiency of cars.

Concentration Zone Model

A model that explains urban growth with rings added to the periphery to accommodate immigrants from rural areas.

Informal Settlement

Residential areas where housing is built on land without legal plans, often referred to as squatter settlements.

Bid Rent Theory

A theory that explains how land price and demand decrease as distance from the city center increases.

Sector Model

A model that accounts for the arrangement of different socioeconomic groups in urban areas, showing a pattern of wedges radiating from the CBD.

Sprawl

Development of suburbs at low density that is not contiguous to the existing built-up area.

Smart Growth

Legislation and regulations aimed at limiting suburban growth and preserving farmland.

Galactic City Model

An updated multiple-nuclei model that reflects emerging patterns of edge cities and suburbanization.

Edge Cities

New suburban centers that emerge on the fringe of urban areas, typically characterized by office space, shopping, and entertainment.

Density Gradient

A spatial representation of how population density changes as you move away from the city center.

Urban Growth Boundary

A regional boundary set to control urban sprawl by limiting land designated for development.

Transportation Infrastructure

Roads, public transport, and other systems that facilitate movement of people and goods within a city.

Congestion

Traffic jam caused by too many vehicles on the roads, particularly during rush hour travel times.

Kibera

An informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya, known as one of the largest squatter settlements in the world.

Multiple Nuclei Model

A model of urban land use that describes the layout of a city as having multiple centers of activity rather than a single CBD.

Annexation

The process of legally adding land area to a city.

Fragmented Governance

A situation where a metropolitan area is governed by many local governments, creating complexity in zoning and land use.

Flying Toilets

A term used in informal settlements for the practice of defecating in plastic bags disposed of in sewage ditches.

Central Place Theory

A theory that explains the distribution of consumer services based on population size and market thresholds.

Global City

A major center for the provision of business services in the global economy, characterized by economic, political, cultural, and infrastructural factors.

Megalopolis

A region consisting of several adjacent metropolitan areas that merge into a continuous urban complex.

Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)

An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000, including surrounding counties with high population density.

Micropolitan Statistical Area

An urban area with a population between 10,000 and 50,000, including its surrounding counties.

Central Business District (CBD)

The downtown area of a city, characterized by high land values and a concentration of business services.

Concentric Zone Model

A model describing urban land use in a series of concentric rings around a central point, each representing different social groups.

Sector Model

A model of urban land use that describes urban growth in wedges or sectors, reflecting different areas' attractiveness for specific activities.

Multiple Nuclei Model

A model that suggests cities have multiple centers (nuclei) around which different activities cluster.

Edge City

A suburban area that provides a variety of consumer and business services, often located at major intersections of highways.

Offshore Financial Services

Financial services offered in low-tax jurisdictions, often utilized for tax avoidance and secrecy.

Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)

Delegating specific business tasks or functions, like call centers or payroll processing, to external service providers, often in developing countries.

Threshold and Range

Threshold is the minimum market size needed for a service to operate, while range is the maximum distance consumers are willing to travel for that service.

Urban Hierarchy

The ranking of urban settlements based on their size and the number of services they provide.

Wind

Natural movement of air that can be harnessed for energy.

Conservation

The sustainable management and use of natural resources.

Natural Gas

A fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane, used for energy production.

Fossil Fuel

Energy sources like coal, oil, and natural gas, derived from ancient organic materials.

Pollution

The presence of harmful substances in the environment.

Petroleum

Liquid fossil fuel used primarily for transportation and energy.

Renewable Resource

A resource that can be replenished naturally over time.

Coal

A combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock used primarily for electricity generation.

Geothermal

Energy derived from the Earth’s internal heat.

Nuclear

Energy produced by nuclear reactions, typically fission.

Biodiversity

The variety of life in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

Proven Reserve

The supply of energy resources that is known to exist and can be extracted economically.

Solar Energy

Energy harnessed from the sun's rays.

Sustainable Development

Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations' ability to meet their own needs.

Nonrenewable Resource

A resource that cannot be replenished at the same rate it is consumed.

Climate Change

Long-term alterations in temperature and typical weather patterns in a place.

Preservation

The maintenance of resources in their present condition with minimal human impact.

Energy Efficiency

The goal of reducing the amount of energy required to provide products and services.

Air Pollution

The presence of substances in the air that are harmful to human health and the environment.

Water Pollution

The contamination of water bodies due to harmful pollutants.