BIO 2301: Blood, Respiratory, and Coagulation Key Concepts, Comprehensive Blood, Respiratory, and Acid-Base Physiology Review

What are the formed elements of blood?

The living, formed/cellular elements of blood include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

What triggers the intrinsic pathway of coagulation?

The intrinsic pathway of coagulation is triggered by damage to the blood vessel wall.

What condition increases oxygen unloading from hemoglobin?

High hydrogen ion concentration increases oxygen unloading from hemoglobin.

Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located?

Peripheral chemoreceptors are located in the carotid arteries and aorta.

What stimulates an increase in respiratory rate?

Increased CO₂ levels stimulate an increase in respiratory rate.

What are the living components of blood?

Formed elements: Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells), Leukocytes (White Blood Cells), Platelets.

What is the non-living component of blood?

Plasma, which makes up about 55% of blood volume.

What role do gamma globulins play in the blood?

They are antibodies that help identify and neutralize pathogens.

What is the primary function of neutrophils?

To phagocytize bacteria and respond to bacterial infections.

What do eosinophils primarily respond to?

Allergies and parasitic infections.

What happens to RBCs after their lifespan ends?

They are destroyed in the spleen and liver, and their components are recycled.

What substance inhibits the liver's ability to produce clotting factors?

Coumadin (warfarin)

What role do EDTA and citrate play in clot formation?

They are calcium chelators that prevent the clotting cascade.

What is the role of thrombin in clot formation?

Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin and activates Factor XIII.

What is a thrombus?

A clot that forms in place.

What is an embolus?

A clot that travels through the bloodstream.

What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during inhalation?

It decreases, becoming less than atmospheric pressure.

What is the primary muscle involved in inhalation?

The diaphragm.

What is airway resistance?

The force that opposes airflow in the respiratory tract.

What is the respiratory membrane composed of?

Endothelium of pulmonary capillary, basement membranes, and alveolar epithelium.

What is the saturation level of hemoglobin after oxygen unloading?

Hemoglobin is still about 75% saturated in venous blood.

What factors increase oxygen unloading from hemoglobin?

High temperature, high pCO₂, low pH (Bohr effect), and high DPG.

What is myoglobin?

An oxygen-binding protein in muscles that serves as an O₂ reservoir and has a higher affinity for O₂ than hemoglobin.

What happens to CO₂ at the lungs during exhalation?

CO₂ moves from blood to alveoli and is converted back to CO₂ gas for exhalation.

What does hemoglobin bind to?

Oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂), hydrogen ions (H⁺), and carbon monoxide (CO).

What is the Hering-Breuer reflex?

A protective reflex that prevents over-inflation of the lungs by inhibiting inspiration when lungs are stretched.

What is alkalosis?

A condition where there are not enough H⁺ ions in the blood, resulting in pH > 7.45.

How do buffers stabilize pH?

By moderating strong acids and bases, converting them into weaker ones.

What happens in acidosis regarding buffers?

Buffers bind excess H⁺ from strong acids to form weaker acids.

What is the core chemical reaction controlled by the respiratory system?

CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻.

What causes respiratory acidosis?

Hypoventilation, leading to CO₂ retention and increased H⁺.

What is the significance of pH in physiological function?

Even small shifts in pH can have significant physiological effects.

What is the primary cause of Respiratory Acidosis?

Hypoventilation, leading to CO₂ retention.

What are common causes of Metabolic Acidosis?

Shock, renal failure, ketoacidosis, diarrhea.

What is the typical ABG result for Metabolic Acidosis?

pH ↓, CO₂ ↓, HCO₃⁻ ↓.

What compensatory mechanism occurs in Metabolic Acidosis?

Increased respiratory rate to blow off CO₂.

What are common causes of Metabolic Alkalosis?

Vomiting, excessive antacid intake.

What is the typical ABG result for Metabolic Alkalosis?

pH ↑, CO₂ ↑, HCO₃⁻ ↑.

What compensatory mechanism occurs in Metabolic Alkalosis?

Decreased respiratory rate to retain CO₂.

What is the role of the renal system in acid-base balance?

Maintains acid-base balance by reabsorbing bicarbonate and secreting H⁺.

How quickly do buffers respond to acid-base imbalances?

Immediate response.

What is the function of thermoreceptors?

Detect external temperature changes.

What is the primary mechanism of heat loss through conduction?

Direct transfer of heat from the body to another solid surface.

What is the body's response if the temperature is too low?

Shivering and vasoconstriction of cutaneous blood vessels.

What is the adaptive advantage of fever?

Inhibits pathogen activity and enhances white blood cell function.

What triggers the release of prostaglandins during fever?

Pyrogens such as bacterial toxins and cytokines.

What is the function of lymphocytes?

They play a central role in the immune system, with B lymphocytes producing antibodies and T lymphocytes attacking infected cells.

What role does Vitamin K play in coagulation?

It helps the liver produce clotting factors.

What is fetal hemoglobin (HbF)?

Hemoglobin found in fetal blood that has a high affinity for oxygen, allowing it to pick up O₂ from the mother.

What is the bicarbonate buffer system composed of?

Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and carbonic acid (H₂CO₃).

What plasma protein maintains osmotic pressure?

Albumin is primarily responsible for maintaining osmotic (oncotic) pressure in the blood.

What initiates platelet aggregation during hemostasis?

ADP is responsible for initiating platelet aggregation and making platelets sticky during the platelet plug formation phase of hemostasis.

What is a clot that remains in place within a blood vessel called?

A clot that forms and remains in place within a blood vessel is called a thrombus.

What occurs during expiration in normal quiet breathing?

During expiration, thoracic volume decreases and pressure increases.

Why does air flow into the lungs during inspiration?

Air flows into the lungs from the atmosphere during inspiration because intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure.

How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?

The main way carbon dioxide is transported in the blood is as bicarbonate.

What happens in the bicarbonate buffer system during alkalosis?

In the presence of excess base in the blood (alkalosis), the bicarbonate buffer system will release H⁺ ions.

What is a response to decreased body temperature?

A response to decreased body temperature includes shivering and vasoconstriction.

What disorder is indicated by low pH, low carbon dioxide, and low bicarbonate?

This indicates metabolic acidosis with compensation.

What disorder is indicated by high pH, low carbon dioxide, and normal bicarbonate?

This indicates respiratory alkalosis, no compensation.

What is the primary function of erythrocytes?

To carry oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide.

What is the most abundant plasma protein?

Albumin, which maintains oncotic pressure.

What is the function of fibrinogen?

It is essential for blood clotting, converted to fibrin by thrombin.

What are the primary electrolytes found in plasma?

Sodium (Na⁺), Potassium (K⁺), Calcium (Ca²⁺), Chloride (Cl⁻), Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻).

What is the lifespan of erythrocytes?

About 120 days.

What are the two categories of leukocytes?

Granulocytes and Agranulocytes.

What is the role of basophils in the blood?

They are involved in inflammation and release histamine.

What is the main role of platelets?

To initiate blood clotting (hemostasis) at injury sites.

Where does hematopoiesis occur?

In the red bone marrow.

What hormone stimulates erythropoiesis?

Erythropoietin (EPO).

What are antigens in the context of blood types?

Proteins on RBC membranes that act as 'nametags' for the immune system.

What are antibodies in the context of blood types?

Proteins in plasma that attack 'non-self' antigens.

What is the universal donor blood type?

Type O, which has no antigens on RBCs.

What is the Rh factor?

An antigen on RBCs that determines if blood type is Rh+ or Rh-.

What is erythroblastosis fetalis?

A condition where an Rh- mother produces antibodies against Rh+ fetal blood.

What are the three phases of hemostasis?

Vasospasm, Platelet Plug Formation, and Coagulation.

What triggers vasospasm during hemostasis?

Reflex from pain/smooth muscle injury and serotonin released by activated platelets.

What is the intrinsic pathway of coagulation?

Triggered by damage to the blood vessel wall; forms a clot in 3-6 minutes.

What is the extrinsic pathway of coagulation?

Triggered by damage to blood vessel wall and surrounding tissue; forms a clot in 15 seconds.

What process occurs after a clot forms?

Clot retraction occurs, squeezing out serum and tightening the clot.

What do platelets release to stimulate blood vessel repair?

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

What is fibrinolysis?

The dissolution of the clot, initiated by TPA activating plasminogen.

What can abnormal clot formation lead to?

Strokes, heart attacks, and pulmonary emboli.

What is Boyle's Law?

Pressure varies inversely with volume (P ∝ 1/V).

What is the difference between forced inhalation and quiet inhalation?

Forced inhalation uses accessory muscles for greater volume increase.

What is lung compliance?

How easy it is to fill the lungs with air.

What causes decreased lung compliance?

Restrictive airway diseases and decreased surfactant.

What is tidal volume (TV)?

The volume of air moved in or out with each normal breath (~500 mL).

What is vital capacity (VC)?

The total amount of exchangeable air (IRV + TV + ERV) (~5000 mL).

What is anatomical dead space?

Air in conducting zones where gas exchange does not occur (~150 mL).

What is ventilation-perfusion coupling?

The matching of air coming to alveolus with blood coming to pulmonary capillary.

What happens during external respiration?

Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the respiratory membrane.

How does oxygen move from alveoli to blood?

Oxygen moves down its partial pressure gradient from alveoli to blood.

How does oxygen move from the alveoli to the blood?

Oxygen moves down its partial pressure gradient.

What is the primary way oxygen is transported in the blood?

Primarily bound to hemoglobin inside red blood cells (RBCs) as oxyhemoglobin.

What happens to hemoglobin at the lungs?

Hemoglobin picks up all O₂ it can hold, becoming almost 100% saturated.

What occurs during oxygen unloading at tissues?

Hemoglobin gives up O₂ that tissues need for aerobic metabolism.

How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

In three ways: dissolved in plasma (~7-10%), bound to hemoglobin (~20-23%), and as bicarbonate (~70%).

What reaction occurs to transport CO₂ in the blood?

CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase.

What is the role of the medulla in respiration?

It controls the basic rhythm of breathing.