SOCY EXAM 3 FINAL

Ethnography

Research method that study people in their natural environments by observing, hoping to understand social behavior, culture, meanings and interactions.

Hochschild The Second Shift → “Words don’t always match actions”

• Hochschild studied married couples & household labor

• MAIN IDEA = people may say one thing but act differently

• matters in ethnography:

  • observe hidden social patterns

  • uncover contradictions btw beliefs & behavior

Clifford Geertz — Thick Description

Thick Description → giving a very detailed explanation of behaviors, settings, emotions, meanings, & cultural context

Instead of only describing what happened, the researcher explains:

• why it happened

• what it means to participants

• the social context behind it

Thin vs Thick Description

• Thin Description

  • “A person winked.” → This only describes the action

• Thick Description

  • “The wink was a secret joke between friends, showing trust and shared understanding.”

  • helps understand the deeper meaning of behavior

  • see the world from participants’ perspectives

  • understand culture more completely

Complete Participant (type of Participation Continuum role)

• fully participates, hide their ID, becomes part of group

• ✅access to authentic behavior

• ❌ethnical concerns, risk of bias

• Ex. An undercover researcher joining a gang without revealing they are studying it.

Participant-as-Observer (type of Participation Continuum role)

• participates, but ppl know they’re a researcher

• ✅builds trust, deeper understanding

• ❌researcher may influence behavior

• Ex. A sociologist volunteering at a community center while observing interactions.

Observer-as-Participant (type of Participation Continuum role)

• mainly observes, limited interaction, short-term involvement

• ✅more objective

• ❌less detailed understanding

• Ex. Interviewing students during a school visit.

Complete Observer (type of Participation Continuum role)

• only watches, does not participate, remain unseen

• ✅minimal influence on participants

• ❌cannot fully understand meanings or emotions

• Ex. Watching behavior through surveillance footage.

“Going Native” – Alice Goffman in Philadelphia

“Going native” happens when a researcher becomes too emotionally involved with the group being studied and loses objectivity.

• Alice conducted ethnographic research in a poor neighborhood in Philadelphia

• This case illustrates the dangers of losing professional distance, ethnical complications, & possible bias

Reflexivity

Researchers critically examine their own background, beliefs, ID, values, and how it may influence the research process.

• Ex. A wealthy researcher studying poverty may interpret experiences differently than someone who has experienced poverty personally.

Strengths & Weaknesses of Ethnography

• ✅ researchers gain detailed insight on culture, relationships, emotions

• ✅ ppl observed in natural settings instead of artificial environments

• ✅ reveals contradictions, hidden norms, emotions

• ❌ time-consuming

• ❌ risks of bias like emotional attach, interpret subjectively

• ❌ difficult to generalize as it focus on small groups

• ❌ ethical challenges of privacy concerns, deception, informed consent

Depth Interview Experience

A qualitative research method where a researcher has a detailed, open-ended conversation with a participant to better understand:

• experiences,

• feelings,

• beliefs,

• motivations,

• and personal perspectives.

Instead of asking only yes/no questions, researchers encourage people to tell stories and explain their thoughts in detail.

What Makes In-Depth Interviews Different?

The interview may feel more like a guided conversation than a formal questionnaire.

• Active listening

• Builds rapport

• Asks follow up questions

Example of an Open-Ended Question

• Instead of asking: “Did you like your job?”

• A researcher may ask: “Can you describe what your work experience was like?”

• This encourages: longer answers, emotions, stories, and unexpected information.

Why is it recommended to ask an interviewee, "Is there anything I missed that you think would be important for me to know?" at the end of an interview?

• gives participants control → topics research forgot

• reveals unexpected info → emotional experiences, hidden concerns

• prevents missing important data → helps fill gaps in data

• shows respect for participant’s perspective

Role of Silence in a One-on-One Qualitative Interview

Silence is considered a valuable interviewing tool

• Gives interviewee time to think

• Encourages more detailed answers

• Allows emotional processing

• Prevents Interviewer control

Qualitative Data Analysis

• Examines non-numerical data to identify patterns, themes, behaviors

• Researchers analyzes interview transcripts, field notes, observations, documents

General Guidelines on Writing Up Qualitative Research

The Sandwich Method

1. Theoretical level (top bun): theoretical point to indicate a pattern exist in ur data

2. Empirical level (meat): interview quotation, observational data, or particular participant to back up ur theoretical point

3. Theoretical level (bottom bun): reiterate earlier theoretical point, useful context, exceptions or qualification to main point

Qualitive Coding is Inductive

Researchers allow themes to emerge from data itself instead of starting with fixed categories

• Inductive = “bottom-up” so theories/themes develop from data

• ex. A researcher studying college life may unexpectedly discover that loneliness is a major issue even though it was not the original focus.

Qualitive Coding is Fluid

Researchers constantly revise & reorganize codes during analysis

At first, a researcher may code:

• “stress,” “anxiety,” “burnout” → “emotional strain”

• Coding is not fixed or rigid

Qualitative Coding Seeks Saturation

Saturation occurs when no major new themes or patterns appear in the data, so same ideas are repeated.

• After many interviews about student stress, participants continue mentioning: tuition, lack of sleep, workload, and finances.

• No new important themes emerge → Saturation has been reached

OpenAI & Higher Education Class Exercise

Researchers may examine:

• AI-generated responses,

• student essays,

• classroom discussions,

• or prompts given to AI systems.

Understand how artificial intelligence may influence:

• education,

• learning,

• academic integrity,

• communication,

• and knowledge production.

Coding Manual

A coding manual is a detailed guide explaining:

• what researchers are looking for,

• how to categorize information,

• and how coders should label data consistently.

Manifest Codes

Focus on content that is directly visible or explicitly stated in the material.

• Manifest = Surface-level / direct

Researchers code:

• exact words, phrases, images, or obvious topics.

• Ex. “AI helps me finish assignments faster.” → “efficiency” or “AI assistance”

Latent Codes

Focus on underlying meanings, emotions, assumptions, or hidden ideas in the material.

• Latent = Hidden Meaning

• Ex. “AI helps me finish assignments faster.” → “academic pressure” or “stress”

OpenAI & Higher Education Study Prompt Analysis

• Prompt analysis examines the instructions or questions given to AI systems.

• Researchers study: wording, assumptions, tone, bias, and outcomes produced by prompts.

• Ex. '“Write a college essay about why higher education matters”

  • analyze how AI frames education,

  • whether responses reflect bias,

  • or what values appear in the generated content.

Preparing Coders

Training researchers to apply codes consistently and accurately.

When multiple people analyze material, they must understand:

• coding rules,

• definitions,

• and procedures.

Strengths of Content Analysis

• Uses existing texts/materials → less participant bias & fewer ethical concerns

• Low cost & easy access to materials

• Can use both qualitative & quantitative methods

• Allows longitudinal/historical analysis over time

• Flexible → methods/codes can be revised

• Easy to replicate if coding is systematic and documented

Weaknesses of Content Analysis

• Materials may be hard to access, read, or decode

• Can be very time-consuming with large amounts of data

• May focus only on surface-level (manifest) content

• Complex concepts can be difficult to code consistently

• Reliability may be uncertain, especially in qualitative coding

Content Analysis

Focuses on the study of recorded communications.

• newspapers

• journal entries

• visual and auditory sources

  • television shows

  • advertisements

  • movies

Micro-Level Analysis

Focuses on:

• small-scale interactions,

• individuals,

• and everyday behavior.

Studies:

• face-to-face interactions,

• communication,

• identity,

• small groups.

Ex. Studying how students interact in a classroom.

Macro-Level Analysis

Focuses on:

• large social structures,

• institutions,

• and society as a whole.

Studies:

• governments,

• education systems,

• social class,

• racism,

• economies.

Ex. Studying how poverty affects educational achievement nationwide.

Units of Analysis

The main thing being studied in research, such as Individuals, Groups, Organizations, Communities, Countries, & Social interactions.

• If researchers study students’ opinions, the unit of analysis → individual students

• If studying schools, the unit of analysis → the school

Causation

One factor directly causes another factor to change

Researchers try to determine:

• whether variables are connected,

• and whether one actually causes the other.

Ex. Lack of sleep → lower academic performance.

Reversal Causality

When researchers confuse the direction of cause and effect.

Instead of: A causes B, it may actually be: B causes A

Ex.

• Think “social media causes loneliness”

• But may also be “Lonely people use social media more”

Theoretical Criterion

Research findings should make sense according to existing sociological theory and logic.

Ex. Conflict theory predicts inequality because groups compete for power and resources. If findings support this idea, they meet the theoretical criterion.

Structural Functionalism

Society is like a system where all parts work together to maintain stability and order.

• Institutions like family, schools, gov, religion, all serve import functions

• Focuses on social order, stability, cooperation

• Ex. schools teach knowledge, discipline, social norms

Conflict Theory

Society is shaped by inequality and competition over power and resources.

• Groups compete based on class, race, gender, wealth

• Focuses on power, inequality, conflict, social change

• Ex. Wealthy groups may control institutions to maintain privilege.

Symbolic Interactionism

People create social reality through everyday interactions and shared meanings.

• Reveals symbols, language, identity, communication

• Focuses on micro-level interaction, meaning-making, social symbols

• Ex. A wedding ring symbolizes marriage and commitment.

Postmodernism

Postmodernism questions:

• absolute truths,

• universal explanations,

• and fixed social categories.

It argues reality is socially constructed and shaped by media, language, and culture.

Paradigm Shifts

When a major change happens in how people understand or study society.

• Old theories or assumptions are replaced with new ways of thinking

• Ex. Moving from believing mental illness was caused by evil spirits to understanding psychological and social causes.

Mediating Effects

A mediating variable explains HOW or WHY one variable affects another.

• Ex. Poverty → stress → poor health

• Stress is the mediator because it explains how poverty affects health.

Moderating Effects

A moderating variable changes the strength or direction of a relationship between two variables.

• Ex. Exercise may reduce the effect of stress on health

• Exercise is the moderator because it changes the relationship.

Multi-Dimensional Concepts

Some sociological concepts have multiple parts or dimensions.

• Researchers must recognize all aspects of the concept.

• Ex. Social Class

  • income, education, occupation, wealth, social status

Operationalization

Turning abstract concepts into measurable variables.

• Stress operationalized as:

  • Hours of sleep

  • stress scale scores

  • cortisol levels

  • self-reported anxiety

Recruiting a Site in West Baltimore — Friction Lab Experience

The Friction Lab example discusses the challenges researchers face when trying to gain access to research sites and communities.

Researchers often must:

• build trust,

• establish relationships,

• explain research goals,

• and overcome suspicion.

Communities may fear:

• exploitation,

• judgment,

• outsiders,

• or misuse of information.

This is especially important in communities with histories of inequality or discrimination.