Biology Final 2026
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103 Terms
Where does energy on Earth come from?
Almost all energy comes from the Sun.
What is the photosynthesis formula?
6CO2 + 6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
What happens during light-dependent reactions?
Light is absorbed by chlorophyll, water splits, oxygen is released, ATP and NADPH are produced.
What occurs in the Calvin Cycle?
CO2 enters cycle, ATP/NADPH provide energy, glucose forms.
What is photosynthesis?
Process converting light to glucose.
What are grana?
Stacks of thylakoids.
What is stroma?
Fluid inside chloroplast.
What is chlorophyll?
Light-absorbing pigment.
What is cellular respiration?
Process making ATP.
What is the cellular respiration equation?
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.
What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
Aerobic uses oxygen and makes more ATP; anaerobic does not.
What happens during glycolysis?
Glucose splits into pyruvate and produces ATP.
What occurs in the Krebs cycle?
Produces electron carriers and ATP.
What happens in the electron transport chain?
Electrons move through membrane proteins creating most ATP.
What are the types of anaerobic respiration?
Lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
DNA→RNA→Protein.
What is the difference between somatic cells and gametes?
Somatic=body cells; gametes=sex cells.
What is the purpose of meiosis?
Create genetically unique haploid gametes.
What is crossing over?
Increases genetic variation.
What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
Meiosis makes gametes; mitosis makes body cells.
What did Mendel discover?
Inheritance laws through pea plants.
What is a monohybrid cross?
One trait cross; genotype ratio often 1:2:1.
What is a dihybrid cross?
Two trait cross; ratio often 9:3:3:1.
What is incomplete dominance?
Blends traits.
What is codominance?
Shows both traits.
What is the difference between sex-linked and autosomal traits?
Sex-linked on X/Y chromosomes; autosomal on non-sex chromosomes.
What is the difference between a mutation in a gamete and a somatic cell?
Gamete mutations can be inherited; somatic cannot.
What is the difference between gene and chromosome mutations?
Gene changes DNA sequence; chromosome changes larger structures.
What is a point mutation?
Affects one base.
What is a frameshift mutation?
Shifts sequence.
What is the purpose of a pedigree?
Tracks inheritance patterns.
What are the principles of natural selection?
Variation, overproduction, competition, adaptation.
How does variation increase fitness?
Beneficial traits improve survival.
What are the factors contributing to variation?
Mutations, recombination, and gene flow.
What is the difference between speciation and extinction?
New species form vs species disappear.
What is gradualism?
Slow change.
What is punctuated equilibrium?
Rapid bursts of change.
What is the role of fossils in evolution?
Provide evidence of evolutionary change.
What is the difference between bacteria and viruses?
Bacteria are living cells; viruses need hosts.
How are bacteria classified?
By shape and Gram stain.
Why are viruses not considered living?
No metabolism, no reproduction alone, no cells.
What is the lytic cycle?
Immediate destruction of host cell.
What is the lysogenic cycle?
Dormant insertion into host DNA.
What did Pasteur and Koch contribute to microbiology?
Supported germ theory.
What is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?
General defenses vs specific defenses.
What are the two lines of innate defense?
Barriers and internal defenses.
What is the role of B cells?
Make antibodies.
What is the role of T cells?
Attack infected cells.
which process produces the most energy for a cell
Aerobic Respiration
what happens at the beginning of cellular respiration
Glycosis
Energy stored in food molecules like glucose must be converted into _____ before it can be used by the cell
ATP
which step of aerobic respiration generates the most ATP
ETC
the first step of both anaerobic respiration and aerobic respiration is _____
Glycosis
organisms with traits that make them better adapted to their environment will live longer and reproduce more than organisms less adapted to the environment
Natural selection
when isolation such as geographically, causes two populations of organisms to become so different that they can no longer reproduce with each other and create viable offspring.
Speciation
The principle of natural selection that explains how beneficial traits should become more common over time, causing a change in allele frequencies
Desecnt with modifaction
a segment of DNA that has instruction to build a protien
Gene
Where DNA is stored in the cell
Nucleus
where protiens are made in the cell
ribosome
The monomer that builds nucleic acids is
Nucleotides
whats the difference between DNA and RNA
DNA and RNA nucleotides have different sugars in their structure
what is the name of the process that synthesizes mRNA
transcription
what is an example of a molecule produced by the process shown above
a polypeptide
why must gene expression be a two step process
DNA, the instructions for protein synthesis cant leave the nucleus and proteins are made on ribosomes
The wings of flightless birds are an example of this.
Vestigial structures
rapid evolutionary change
punctuated equilibrium
similar body structures, such as fins, due to organisms living in the same enviorment
analogous structures
when allelic frequencies are stable and unchanging, therefore evolution is not occuring
genetic equalibrium
Evolution that results in the formation of analogous structures
coevolution
what is a karyotype
a diagram that shows the number and visual apperance of the chromosome in a cell.
whats the difference between meiosis and mitosis
Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells, while meiosis generates four haploid cells.
what is protien synthesis
the process of reading the instructions in DNA to make a polypeptide
transcription
DNA——→RNA
translation
RNA——→protien
what is a codon
a set of instructions for 3 nucleotides
what is an anticodon
“complementary” 3 nucleotides on tRNA
Organisms that can form food from sunlight or chemicals:
autotrophs
Area within the chloroplasts where the light-dependent reaction takes place
Thylakoids
area within the chloroplasts where the Calvin cycle takes place
Stroma
which of the following correctly identifies the reactants needed for photosynthesis?
Carbon dioxide and Water
what are the primary products of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?
Glucose and Oxygen
Different versions or forms of a specific gene.
Having two different alleles for a particular trait, such as Aa.
The physical characteristics or traits of an organism.
When one gene overshadows or masks the expression of another separate gene.
Failure of chromosomes to separate properly during meiosis.
A person who has one recessive allele for a trait but does not display the phenotype.
The actual alleles inherited for a trait, such as AA, Aa, or aa.
Having two of the same alleles for a trait, such as AA or aa.
An allele that is always expressed if present.
An allele that is only expressed when the dominant allele is absent.
A dominant allele will express itself over a recessive allele.
When chromosomes separate in meiosis, each gamete receives only one chromosome from each pair.
: The inheritance of one trait does not affect the inheritance of another; genes for different traits sort into gametes separately.
Sex cells produced by meiosis.
Children or new organisms produced by parents.
Body cells are produced by mitosis, while gametes are sex cells produced by meiosis.
A change in the DNA sequence that affects the organism itself, but not its offspring. It occurs in somatic/body cells, not sperm or egg cells.
A change in the DNA sequence that affects the organism’s offspring, not the organism itself. It occurs in a gamete or sex cell, such as sperm or egg, not in a body cell.