integ: devpsych (theories of human development)

Incapacity to operate on intangible subjects

Maturational limitation to adequately comprehend, expound, or relate to abstract concepts like love and self-esteem

Abstraction

Maturational capacity to comprehend, relate, and operate on abstract subjects

Conservation

Ability to recognize and mentally operate that an amount of something is sustained regardless to which it has been transferred

Theory of mind

Ability to acknowledge that other people have different feelings, thoughts, and preferences than their own

Egocentrism

Maturational limitation to consider the feelings, thoughts, or preferences of others

Lack in symbolic thought

Object permanence

Ability to recognize the presence of an object without seeing it upfront

Sensory Distortion

• Seeing the world in a too-positive, unrealistic way

• Example: Trusting strangers too easily

IRREVERSIBILITY

Limitation to operate backwards on any given series, particularly those involving arithmetics

Disdain

• Looking down on life or others

• Example: Bitter, full of regret

Presumption

• Acting like you are too wise/perfect

• Example: Refusing to accept mistakes

Rejectivity

• Rejecting responsibility for others

• Example: Not caring about family or society

Overextension

• Giving too much, neglecting yourself

• Example: Helping others but burning out

Exclusivity

• Shutting others out

• Example: Avoiding relationships entirely

Promiscuity

• Superficial relationships, no real closeness

• Example: Many partners, no emotional connection

identity diffusion

• Rejecting identity or roles completely

• Example: “I don’t care who I am or what I do”

Fanaticism

• Being too rigid about beliefs/identity

• Example: Extreme, closed-minded views

Inertia

• Lack of motivation

• Example: “Why try? I’ll fail anyway.”

Narrow Virtuosity

• Focusing on skills but ignoring everything else

• Example: Only studies, no social life

Inhibition

• Being too afraid to act

• Example: Never trying new things due to fear of guilt

Ruthlessness

• Going after goals without caring about others

• Example: Bullying to get what you want

Compulsivity

• Being over-controlled and perfectionistic

• Example: Afraid to act unless everything is perfect

Impulsivity

• Acting without thinking

• Example: Doing dangerous things just to feel independent

Withdrawal

• Pulling away from people

• Example: Avoiding others because you expect harm

Informed Consent

• Ensuring that the participants willingly participate in the study with adequate knowledge about its nature, purpose, and the procedures they will be involved.

• choice, understanding, nature, reason

The Right to Withdraw

We are responsive all throughout for nonverbal indications of a desire to what, particularly when there is a difficulty in speech, a young child, or culturally unlikeliness to communicate.

ego-syntonic

psychosocial elements that are in harmony with the self

ego-dystonic

psychosocial elements that are not in harmony with the self

Debriefing

Informing the participants that they contributed to the body of knowledge and ensuring that they also have learned from participating.

Sequential

Collection of data through successive cross-sectional or longitudinal samples

Pros: Combined strength of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Cons: Expensive, requires a lot of effort, and complex data analysis

Cross-sectional

Collection of data from different ages at the same time.

Pros: Economical and no attrition problems

Cons: Can be confounded by cohort effects

Longitudinal

Ethological Perspectives

• Development as a process of need for adaptation and survival

• Behaviors common to all children from different cultures

Ecological Perspectives

• Development is influenced by environmental systems that a child actively participates and belongs in

• Bronfenbrenner’s Systems Theory

Psychoanalytic Perspectives

• Behavior stems from unconscious processes and early family experiences

• Manifest in dreams, slips of speech, mannerisms, and emotional problems

Psychosexual Theory

• emphasized the role of unconscious drives and early childhood in human development

• Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and greatly shaped by early childhood experiences

• People are born with a series of innate, biologically based drives (ex. sex, hunger, aggression) which must be satisfied in order for development to occur and adult personality to form

Fixation

• an arrest in development caused by the over/under gratification

• Results in the development of certain disorders

Id

• Source of primitive drives / impulses

• Governed by the Pleasure Principle and Primary Process Thought

Ego

• Intermediary between Id and Superego

• Governed by the Reality Principle, Primary Narcissism, and Secondary Process Thought

Superego

• Ethical component of personality

• Involves the rewarding and punishing function (Conscience)

• Begins as harsh / unrealistic when it came to demands

Oral Stage (0-2)

• Stage in development governed by the Id

• Source of pleasure is from breastfeeding

• erogenous zone: Mouth (sucking and feeding for nourishment)

Oral Fixation

persistent need for oral gratification

Oral Passive

(under gratification) trusting and dependent

Oral Aggressive

 (over gratification) dominating, hostile, and verbally abusive

Anal Stage (2-3)

• Ego gradually develops

• Source of pleasure is from expelling (push) or withholding (pull) (toilet training)

• erogenous zone: Anus (withholding and expelling feces)

Anal Retentive

(strict) tidy and obsessive

Anal Expulsive

(lenient) untidy and generous

Anal Triad

left: obstinancy (stubbornness)

middle: stinginess (overly frugal)

right: orderliness (over-conscientiousness)

Phallic Stage (3-6)

• Superego gradually develops and marked by libido

• Children at this stage tend to explore genital area (ex. masturbation)

• Understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form resulting in Male/Female Oedipus Complex

• erogenous zone: Genitals (masturbation is normal at this stage)

Latency Stage (6-12)

• Stage of development where the libido is dormant / suppressed

• Sexual energy shifts to academics, relationships, and hobbies/interests

• erogenous zone: Repression (focus on social and intellectual skills)

Genital Stage (12 onwards)

• Stage in development where the libido re-emerges

• Energy shifts to heterosexual relationships

• This period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions, leading to the formation of intimate relationships

• erogenous zone: Someone outside the family (heterosexual awakening)

Psychosocial Theory

• extension of Freud’s psychosexual theory that emphasizes the influence of social interactions

• Proposed by Erik Erikson

• Each stage is marked by an interaction of the opposites (syntonic vs. dystonic)

• Argued that humans also develop according to their desire to affiliate with other people

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-2)

• Oral-sensory mode

• Infant learns to listen to biological urges through their interaction with their caregiver

• Perception of the world depends on how their caregiver responds to their needs

Sensory Distortion

Withdrawal

hope

trust vs mistrust’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3)

• Muscular-anal mode

• Child begins to learn control over their body and assert their sense of independence

Impulsiveness

Compulsiveness

will

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)

• Locomotor

• Child begins to explore the world through play and encounter challenges that require purposeful and responsible behavior

Ruthlessness

Inhibition

Purpose

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)

• Focus shifts to peers, teachers and community

  • Sense of morality is highly dependent on their peers and teachers

• Energy is exerted towards building resilience and mastering intellectual skills

Narrow Virtuosity

Inertia

Competence

Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Identity vs. Identity Confusion (12-18)

• Marked as a critical stage in development

• Teens begin to develop their sense of identity in relation to their community

Fanaticism

Repudiation

Fidelity

Identity vs. Identity Confusion (12-18)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40)

• Genitality

• Stage in development where individuals begin forming intimate relationships

Promiscuity

Exclusion

Love

Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60)

• Procreativity

• Characterized by being productive and responsible parents to lead the next generation

Overextension

Rejectivity

Care

Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60 onwards)

• Individuals begin to reflect on the past and come to terms with life as it is

• Sense of integrity is dependent on the amount of care they receive from significant others

Presumption

Disdain

Wisdom

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (60 onwards)’s

syntonic:

dystonic:

virtue:

Operant Conditioning

• learning results from the use of reinforcements to modify the occurrence of behavior

• Proposed by B.F. Skinner (Skinner’s Box Experiment)

• Influenced by Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Intermittent Schedule

best in RETAINING behaviors

nly some behaviors are reinforced

“Sometimes = reward”

Continuous Scheduled

• best in teaching NEW behaviors

• every correct behavior is reinforced

• “Every time = reward”

Fixed Ratio (FR)

• Reward after a fixed number of responses

• Predictable + based on behavior

• ex: Get paid after making 10 products, Candy after 5 correct answers

Variable Ratio (VR)

• Reward after a random number of responses

• Unpredictable + based on behavior

• ex: Gambling, Social media likes (you don’t know when you’ll get one)

Fixed Interval (FI)

• Reward after a fixed amount of time

• Predictable + based on time

• ex: Weekly paycheck, Quiz every Friday

Variable Interval (VI)

• Reward after a random amount of time

• Unpredictable + based on time

• ex: Surprise quizzes, Random phone notifications

Classical Conditioning

• earning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response 

• Proposed by Ivan Pavlov

• Illustrated by an experiment conducted by Pavlov

discrimination

• learned tendency to respond to the stimulus used in training

• respond only to the specific one associated with the unconditioned stimulus (US)

Extinction

gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Before Extinction:

• Bell 🔔 (CS) + Food 🍖 (US) → Salivation (CR)

During Extinction:

• Bell 🔔 without food repeatedly

Result:

• Dog stops salivating

Spontaneous Recovery

reappearance of CR when CS is presented again after extinction

Higher-Order Conditioning

• when a new neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already conditioned stimulus (CS).

• A new signal learns from an already learned signal

• Step 1: First Conditioning

  • Bell 🔔 (CS1) + Food 🍖 (US) → Salivation

  👉 Bell alone → Salivation (CR)

• Step 2: Higher-Order Conditioning

  • Light 💡 (new stimulus) + Bell 🔔 (CS1)

  (No food involved!)

• Result:

  • Light 💡 alone → Salivation

  👉 The light becomes CS2

Social Cognitive Theory

• learning based on the human characteristic of plasticity, which is influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors

• people learn by observing others, thinking about what they see, and then imitating behavior.

• Proposed by Albert Bandura

Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model

• Takes an agentic approach wherein people are both the producers and products of social systems

• People regulate their behavior through moral agency

• behavior is influenced by three factors that interact with each other continuously:

  • Personal Factors

  • Behavior

  • Environment

Observational Learning

learning by observing and imitating

Reciprocal Determinism

argues that there is an interplay between our personality, how we interpret events, and how they influence us

Attentional

Observer must pay attention to the appropriate features of the model’s behavior

Retentional

• Observer must then retain some of the information gathered through observation

• Rehearsal may be important

Motor Reproduction

Observer must know cognitively and roughly what are to be done to reproduce the behavior and translate them into a coordinated pattern of muscle movements

Incentives

• Observer must then have an expectation that the performance of the new behavior will result in some type of reinforcement

• Vicarious Reinforcement

Cognitive Development Theory

• Argued that children’s intelligence undergo changes as they grow

• Each stage of cognitive development builds upon the previous and may vary among people in terms of timing / pace

Schema

• knowledge structure that allows organisms to interpret and understand the world around them

• mental framework or pattern of thinking that helps you organize and understand information.

Cognitive Structure

pattern of thought / pattern

Sensorimotor Schema

• organized pattern of behavior used to represent objects of experience; first structure to appear

• based on physical actions and sensory experiences.

• ex: grasping, sucking, looking

Symbolic Schema

ability to think about objects without their presence

Operational Schema

• cognitive operations applied to objects / events

• mental operations—logical thinking processes that can be applied to solve problems.

Organization

Creation of categories

Adaptation

Handling new information in light of what they already know

Assimilation

• taking in new information

• when you fit new information into an existing schema without changing the schema.

• ex: A child knows dogs have four legs.

  • Sees a new dog breed → calls it a dog ✅

  • Schema for “dog” is applied to new situations

Equilibration

Balancing cognitive structures and new experiences

Accommodation

• adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit new information

  • ex: Child calls a cat a dog (assimilates)

  • Learns: “Cats are different from dogs” → adjusts schema ✅

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2)

• cognitive means: Senses and motor abilities

• stage achievement: Object permanence

• limitations: Lack in symbolic thought