American Psychological Association’s Code of Ethics

General Principles and Ethical Standards

The Ethical Code of APA have two distinct sections

General Principles

• they describe an ideal level of ethical functioning or how psychologists should strive to conduct themselves

• They don’t include specific definitions of ethical violations; instead, they offer more broad descriptions of exemplary ethical behavior

• There are five general principles which present the aspirations for the ideal conduct of the profession:

  • Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

  • Fidelity and Responsibility

  • Integrity

  • Justice

  • Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

Ethical Standards

• enforceable rules of conduct

• Thus, if a psychologist is found guilty of an ethical violation, it is a standard (not a principle) that has been violated

• These standards are written broadly enough to cover the great range of activities in which psychologists engage, but they are nonetheless more specific than the general principles

• Although each general principle could apply to almost any task a psychologist performs, each ethical standard typically applies to a more targeted aspect of professional activity

Ethical Standards

The ethical standards are divided into 10 categories, collectively, these 10 categories include

89 individual standards

1. Resolving Ethical Issues

2. Competence

3. Human Relations

4. Privacy and Confidentiality

5. Advertising ad Other Public Statements

6. Record Keeping and Fees

Ethical Decision Making

• When any ethical issue arises, a clinical psychologist should be equipped with a process by which to make the most ethical decision possible

• The American Psychological Association’s ethical code does not offer any such decision-making models per se, but such models have been recommended by a number of experts in the field

• One such expert is Celia Fisher, who served as chair of the American Psychological Association’s Ethics Code Task Force, the committee responsible for creating the 2002 revision of the ethical code

1. Prior to any ethical dilemma arising, make a commitment to doing what is ethically appropriate

2. Become familiar with the American Psychological Association’s ethical code

3. Consult any law or professional guidelines relevant to the situation at hand

4. Try to understand the perspectives of various parties affected by the actions you may take. Consult with colleagues (always protecting confidentiality) for additional input and discussion

5. Generate and evaluate your alternatives

6. Select and implement the course of action that seems most ethically appropriate

7. Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of your course of action

8. Modify and continue to evaluate the ethical plan as necessary

Confidentiality

• One of the characteristics most closely associated with the ethical practice of clinical psychology is confidentiality

• There is good reason for the emphasis on confidentiality in the profession of psychology: Our profession is entrusted by the public to provide professional services without sharing the private, personal details offered in the process

• However, the public may be unaware of the fact that confidentiality is not absolute

• Although most people outside of the mental health profession may assume that psychologists hold all information confidential, the truth is that situations arise in which psychologists are obligated to break confidentiality

Tarasoff and the Duty to Warn

• In 1969, Prosenjit Poddar was a student at the University of California at Berkeley. He became romantically interested in Tatiana Tarasoff, and when their relationship did not advance as he hoped, his mental state worsened and he sought psychotherapy at the university counseling center from a psychologist, Dr. Lawrence Moore

• During a session in August 1969, Poddar told Dr. Moore that he intended to kill Tarasoff. Dr. Moore believed that Poddar’s comment was credible, so he broke therapist–client confidentiality and contacted campus police.

• The campus police interviewed Poddar but did not hold him, because he promised to avoid Tarasoff and seemed rational at the time of the interview.

• Poddar never returned to therapy

• Two months later, on October 27, 1969, Poddar killed Tarasoff by stabbing and shooting her.

• Tarasoff’s parents later sued Dr. Moore and the others involved in the case for wrongful death.

• The court found that the psychologist was liable for failure to warn Tarasoff of the danger

• Two years later, the court reheard the case and slightly revised their verdict, from a duty to warn to a duty to protect (which could involve something other than a direct warning by the therapist)

When the Client Is a Child or Adolescent

• More confidentiality-related challenges arise when clinical psychologists provide services to minors.

• One particular challenge centers on the fact that for many children and adolescents, the establishment of a close, trusting relationship with a clinical psychologist depends on the extent to which the psychologist reveals details of one-on one conversations with the child’s parents

• Simply put, kids might choose to withhold rather than discuss important personal issues if they know that their psychologists will subsequently share the information with the kids’ parents.

• Of course, as legal guardians, parents are ultimately entitled to be informed about their children’s progress in therapy; moreover, it’s effective clinical practice to keep parents actively engaged in a child’s therapy

• Sometimes, clinical psychologists can discuss this confidentiality dilemma openly with child clients and their parents, and a mutually agreeable arrangement can be reached

Informed Consent

• It ensures the person the person with whom the psychologist is working the opportunity to become knowledgeable about the activities in which they may participate, and it facilitates an educated decision.

• Moreover, it affords individuals the opportunity to refuse to consent if they so choose

Purpose of the Study

Clearly explaining the main objective and goals of the research.

Procedures Involved

Describing the specific activities, processes, or methods that will be used during the study.

Duration

Informing participants about the expected length of time their participation will take.

Risks and Adverse Effects

Disclosing any predictable risks, discomforts, or adverse effects that may arise from participation in the study.

Incentives for Participation

Detailing any rewards, compensations, or benefits that participants will receive for their involvement.

Voluntary Participation

Emphasizing the right of participants to decline or withdraw from the study at any point without penalty.

Experimental Nature of Treatment

Informing clients when the treatment being studied is experimental.

Control Groups

Explaining the possibility of being assigned to a control group which may receive no actual treatment.

Alternative Treatments

Providing information about available alternative treatments outside the scope of the study.

Multiple Relationships

when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and at the same time:

1. In another role with the same person

2. In a relationship with a person closely associated with or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional relationship

3. Promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the person or a person closely associated with or related to the person

Multiple Relationships

• Perhaps the most blatant and damaging are sexual multiple relationships, in which the clinical psychologist becomes a sexual partner of the client

• Such behavior represents a fundamental breach of the healthy therapist–client relationship and often results in significant psychological or emotional damage for the client

• Psychologists are human, of course, and they may experience feelings of attraction toward a client from time to time.

• Surveys of psychologists and other therapists suggest that such feelings do in fact occur

Competence

• In general, competent clinical psychologists are those who are sufficiently capable, skilled, experienced, and expert to adequately complete the professional tasks they undertake

• One specific ethical standard in the section on competence (2.01a) addresses the boundaries of competence: “Psychologists provide services, teach, and conduct research with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, consultation, study, or professional experience”

Competence

• Psychologists not only need to become competent, but they must also remain competent: “Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and maintain their competence”

• This standard is consistent with the continuing education regulations of many state licensing boards.

• That is, to be eligible to renew their licenses, psychologists in many states must attend lectures, participate in workshops, complete readings, or demonstrate in some other way that they are sharpening their professional skills and keeping their knowledge of the field current

Competence

• Ethical psychologists do not assume a “one-size-fits-all” approach to their professional work. Instead, they realize that clients differ in important ways, and they ensure that they have the competence to choose or customize services to suit culturally diverse clients

• Such competence can be obtained in many ways, including through coursework, direct experience, and efforts to increase one’s own self-awareness

Competence

The American Psychological Association’s (2002) code of ethics also recognizes that psychologists’ own personal problems can lessen their competence: “When psychologists become aware of personal problems that may interfere with their performing work-related duties adequately, they take appropriate measures, such as obtaining professional consultation or assistance, and determine whether they should limit, suspend, or terminate their work-related duties”