Issues and Debates

What is Androcentrism

A view centred or focused on men, often to neglect or exclude women

What is Alpha Bias

Research that exaggerates on difference between men and women, and therefore tends to present a view that focuses on these differences

What is an example of Alpha Bias

Freud viewed females as weaker than males: Penis envy as penis represents power, females have a less developed superego (less moral)

What is Beta Bias

Research that focuses on similarities between men and women and therefore tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences

What is an example of Beta Bias

Fight or flight response: Shelly Taylor provided evidence that females produce a tend and befriend response which is adaptive and insures survival of offspring. The original fight or flight research was a male sample generalised to women too

What is universality

The belief that some behaviours are the same for everyone (the goal)

Strengths of Gender Bias

-Understanding gender bias leads to reflexivity: Reflexivity is researched realising everyone has biases that will be unconsciously represented in their work. This can lead to modelling of an idea for other researchers to aspire too

Limitations of Gender Bias

-Consequences of gender bias in research, creating harmful stereotypes: For example the theory of sexual selection suggests women are more choosy in their mate selection. This could be used to justify prejudice towards women’s who are more sexually liberal or toward men who have few partners

-Gender bias may be due to bias methodology: Rosenthal found that male experimenters are more friendly to female participants than male participants. Meaning more male participants perform worse on tasks. The way the data is collected may create a false picture of differences

What is Cultural Bias

The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases your judgment

What is WEIRD

Hendrich et al used the term weird to describe the group of participants most likely to be in psychological research

-Westernisted, Educated people, from Industrial, Rich, Democracies

What is Ethnocentrism

Using the behaviour of one’s own cultural group as the basis for judging the behaviour of other cultural groups. Also the belief that the behaviour of one’s own culture is the correct or superior way to behave

What is an example of Ethnicentrism

Ainsworths Strange Situation: criteria for attachment created in USA used to judge attachment behaviour in other cultures, suggested attachment most common in the USA was normal (secure), this led to children in Eastern cultures being classified as insecure resistant

What is Cultural Relativism

Berry:The recognition that behaviour varies between cultures. A behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs

What is an example of cultural relativism

Hearing Voiced: This is considered normal behaviour in some African cultures because of cultural beliefs, but would be seen as a sign of mental abnormality in UK

Strengths of Cultural Bias

-Understanding cultural bias l add reflexivity: researchers recognised their own biases will be represented in their work. This can lead to good practice and modelling of an ideal for other researchers to aspire too

Limitations of cultural bias

-Nit all behaviour is culturally relative: Elam suggests that basic facial expressions for emotions are universal (fear, happiness). Features in attachment (imitation, interactional synchrony) are universal

-Consequences of cultural bias in research- can create harmful stereotypes: (Gauld) US army did an IQ test before WW1 which was culturally bias toward the white majority. The test showed African Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this has a negative attitude of Americans toward this group of people

What is Determinism

The belford that behaviour is controlled by external and internal factors acting upon the individual

What are the 3 types of determinism

• Biological

• Environmental

• Psychic

What is Biological Determinism

Suggests that behaviour is controlled by internal processes like genes, neuro-chemistry, hormones and brain structure.

What is an example of Biological Determinism

A variant of the MAOA gene is implicated with depression

What is Environmental Determinsim

Suggests our behaviour is controlled by external factors, such as upbringing or learning through classical and operant conditioning

What is an example of environmental determinism

Phobias are developed through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

What is Pschic Determinism

Suggests that our behaviour is controlled by innate drives in the unconscious and childhood experiences

What is an Example of Psychic Determinism

Smoking behaviour is due to fixation and the oral stage

What is Hard Determinsm

All behaviour can be predicted (Biological, Environmental and Psychic)

What is Soft Determism

Behaviour is determined but an individual can still exercise some control

What is the scientific emphasis on casual explanations

Knowledge of causes and the formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future.

In psychology, the lab experiment is the ideal of science as it enables researchers to demonstrate causal relationships due to control over variables

Strengths of Determinsm

-Determinism is consistent with the aims of science: It allows cause and effect relationships to be established which is the scientific goal of psychology. This allows predictions about behaviour. Example: assuming OCD is biologically determined led to SSRI

Limitations of Determinism

-Determinism provided an excuse for immoral behaviour: Stephen Mobley killed and claimed he was ‘born to kill’. It allows individuals to excuse behaviour leading to issues of responsibility

-No behaviour is completely biologically or environmentally determined. Studies find concordance rates in identical twins is 80% intelligence and 40% depression

What is free will

Each individual has the power to make choices about their behaviour

Free Will Example

Humanistic Psychology, choice is needed to self actualise

Strengths of Free Will

-Positive impact of free will: Robert et al demonstrated that adolescents with a strong brito that their lives were determined by events outside of their control were at significantly greater reis of developing depression. This suggests the fact we think we do have free will has a positive impact on behaviour

Limitations of Free Will

-Free Will is an illusion: Libet et al attached EEGs to participants ears and asked them to flex their wrists whenever they chose to do so. They found that motor regions of the brain became more active before the participants become aware of their decision to move

What is Nature

Behaviour is seen to be a product of hereditary.

Eatly Nativists suggested all human characteristics are innate

What is Heredity

The genetic transmission of both mental and physical characteristics from one generation to another

What is an example of nature

Bowlbys monotropic theory suggests that attachment behaviour is innate due it being an adaptive behaviour

What is Nurture

Behaviour is a product of environment and experience

Empiricists argued that the mind is a blank slate

What are pre and post natal factors

behaviour that affects foetus-pre

child growing up-post

How is nature and nurture measured

-Concordance

-Heritability

What is Heretiability

Estimates how much differences in a trait within a population are caused by genetic variation

IQ=50% genes and 50 environmental

What is an example of nurture

The learning theory suggest that attachment is a learnt behaviour through the processes of classical and operant conditioning

What is the internationalist approach

With reference to the nature-nurture debate, the view that the processes of nature (ie biology) and nurture (ie environment) work together/interact to explain the development of behaviour

For example Nestadt et al found a concordance rate of 68% in identical twins for OCD. This demonstrates how all behaviours and characteristics arise from an interaction between both nature and nurture

What is the Diathesis Stress Model

Diathesis(Biological Vulnerability) + Stressor (environmental trigger) = Behaviour

What is Epigenetics

-Changes in how genes work without changing genes themselves

-May be result of environment, changing how genes are expressed

Limitations of Nature

-Dangerous implications if an extreme ‘nature’ perspective: If it is assumed that our genetic makeup alone determines our characteristics and behaviour , this may lead to the practice of eugenics= aims to improve quality of human population by inhibiting the fertility of groups thought to be superior

-Both sides are reductionist: Oversimplifying any complex human behaviour by attributing it entirely to either biological or environmental factors is problematic. Neither side alone can fully explain any behaviour: Ebudence form twin studies demonstrates behaviour are due to both (Nestadt 68%)

-An interactionist approach gives the best explaination: Maguire et al found that the mid-posterior hippocampus (an area of the brain linked to spatial memory) was significantly larger in London taxi drivers than in controls. Navigating London streets (nurture) physically changed the structure of drivers brains (nature) demonstrating neural plasticity)

Strengths of Nurture

-The nurture side of the debate has real world applications: Taking a nurture based approach means that we can deliberately change environments to modify behaviour. For example: Token economise used successfully in prisons positive reinforcement

Limitations of Nurture

-Both sides are reductionist: Oversimplifying any complex human behaviour by attributing it entirely to either biological or environmental factors is problematic. Neither side alone can fully explain any behaviour: Ebudence form twin studies demonstrates behaviour are due to both (Nestadt 68%)

-An interactionist approach gives the best explaination: Maguire et al found that the mid-posterior hippocampus (an area of the brain linked to spatial memory) was significantly larger in London taxi drivers than in controls. Navigating London streets (nurture) physically changed the structure of drivers brains (nature) demonstrating neural plasticity)

What is Holism

An argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system as a whole rather than its constituent parts

What is an example of holism

The humanistic approaches unique subjective experience of the individual

What is Reductionism

The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts

What is Biological Reductionism

Explaining complex behaviour at the physical level of neurotransmitters, genes, hormones and brain structure

What is Environmental Reductionism

Explaining complete behaviour at the level of stimulus response learning/experience

What is Machine Reductionism

Explaining complex behaviour in terms of mechanic models (human mind like a computer)

What are the levels of reductionism

-Social and cultural explanations: Highest Levels

-Psychological Explanations: Middle Level

-Biological Explaination: Lowest level

Strengths of Holism

-Date collection: A holistic approach uses qualitative methods including case studies, diaries and interviews. These methods tells richer more detailed information about an individuals thoughts, feelings and experiences, capturing the complexity of human behaviour that might he missed by outlet quantitative or reductionist approaches

-Real world applications: Humanistic psychologists favour a holistic approach to understanding human behaviour. This has led to Roger’s use of client centred therapy, which focuses on treating the whole person. By exploring an individuals unique thoughts feelings and experiences, this approach promotors personal growth and self actualisation

Limitations of Holism

-Unscientific: The multiple variables considered in a holistic approach do not allow for clear casual relationships to be established. As it cannot isolate specific variables for empirical testing (views individuals as indivisible), the holistic approach is considered subjective and unscientific

Reductionism Strenghts

-Firs with the aims of psychology: A reductionist approach clearly defines variables which can be operationalised and observed objectively. This allows psychologists to establish cause and effect relationships. For example, reductionism allows psychologists to establish that abnormality in the left parahippocampal gyrus leads to OCD symptoms

-Real World Applications: Biological reductionism has led to the development of successful drug treatments. By breaking complex mental health disorders down to the role of neurotransmitters, SSRIs have been developed which balance levels of serotonin, improving the lives of individuals diagnosed with OCD and depression

Limitations of Reductionism

-Can lead to a loss of meaning: Examining individual, simple components does not capture the full complexity of human experience. For example, studying only neurotransmitter imbalances in schizophrenia ignores social and cultural factors which also contribute to the disorder. As a result reductionist explanations can oversimplify behaviour and may fail to provide a complete understanding of real life experiences

What is the Idiographic Approach

Research focusing more on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour, rather than aiming to formulate general laws of behaviour

How is data collected for the idiographic approach

-Small samples, often a single case study

-Qualitative methods (interviews, content analysis)

What is an example of the idiographic approach

Humanistic and psychodynamic approaches:

-Freud used case studies of individual patients to generate his psychosexual theories

-Freud(1909) case study of little hams consisted of 150 pages of quotes and interpretations

What is the Nomothetic Approach

Aims to study human behaviour analysing groups of people through the development of general prisons universal laws

How is data collected in the Nomothetic Approach

-Large representative samples

-Quantitative methods (highly controlled lab experiments, structured observations, questionnaires)

What is an example of the nomothetic approach

The behaviourist and biological approaches:

-Skinner and Pavalov studied animals to develop general laws for behaviour-it is assumed we all learn through the processes of classical and operant conditioning

Strengths of the Idiographic Approach

-Rich, detailed data: The level of detailed information collected is argued to provide a more valid understanding of behaviour

Limitations of an Idiographic Approach

-Time consuming: Due to depth and detail, ideographic research can be a drawn out or expensive process

-Unscientific: Idiographic data collection tends to be subjective meaning it maybe prone to researcher bias (researcher loses objectivity when interpreting the data collected) or confirmation bias (researcher looks for examples if behaviour which aligns with their pre-existing ideas

-Taking a combined approach provides a more holistic understanding of behaviour: For example general trends may be. identified using the nomothetic approach, followed but an ideographic study exploring. the trend in individuals. Alternatively, ideographic findings can generate hypotheses tested on a larger scale using nomothetic methods

Strengths of a Nomothetic Approach

-Objective Measurements: The he’s if experimental (quantitative) methods, controlled and standardised measurement and the ability to predict behaviour, are all seen as strengths. Furthermore, controlled methods allow for replication to examine the reliability of findings which has helped psychology establish itself as a scientific discipline

Limitations of a Nomothetic Approach

-Misinterpretation: General trends found in a sample may not accurately represent every individual in the population

-Superficial: Some psychologists argue that the nomothetic approach loses sight of the ‘whole person’ due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis. General laws do not give a complete picture of the individual and their experience. Also nomothetic research may provide the ‘what’ bit not the ‘why’ or the meaning of a behaviour

-Taking a combined approach provides a more holistic understanding of behaviour: For example general trends may be. identified using the nomothetic approach, followed but an ideographic study exploring. the trend in individuals. Alternatively, ideographic findings can generate hypotheses tested on a larger scale using nomothetic methods

What are ethical implications

The consequences of any research in terms of the effects on individual participants or on the way in which certain groups of people are subsequently regarded. There may also be consequences on a wider societal level

What are examples of Ethical Implications

-Effects of research on participants

-Potential use of the findings eg changes in legislation

-Potential bias against people of certain cultures/ socioeconomic backgrounds/social and ethnic groups

-Economic implications eg futher psychological research or funding

What is social sensitivity

Sieber and Stanley define socially sensitive research as, studies in which there potential consequence or implications, either directly for the participants or for the class of individuals represented by the research, leading to prejudice and discrimination or changes in public policy

How to deal with socially sensitive research

1) The research question: Asking research questions such as ‘Are there differences in IQ’ may be damaging to members of a particular racial group

2) Treatment of participants: Issues such as confidentiality may be especially important

3) The way findings are used: Research findings maube seen as giving scientific credibility to existing prejudice, especially if published in the media

What is an example of Social Sensitivity

Bowlby’s monotropic theory: suggest mothers (primary caregivers) should feel guilty for working

Strengths of Ethical Implications

-Socially sensitive research are not always negative: Studies of underrepresented groups may promote greater understanding and encourage social change. Kinsey’s research into sexuality helped remove homosexuality from DDM as a personality disorder: Importance of tackling sensitive topics

-An awareness of ethical implications of socially sensitive research encourages reflexivity: researchers recognise that the way they plan and conduct research may have consequences on minorities

Limitations of Ethical Implications

-Costs and benefits are difficult to predict: An ethical computer weighs up the potential harm and value of socially sensitive research before approving it. The specific ethical implications are hard to predict are the the way that findings are published and may be misinterpreted. The unpredictably makes it difficult to fully address ethical implications of socially sensible research

Discussion Point On Ethical Issues

One way to deal with socially sensitive rearech is to avoid doing it : The American Psychological Association reported ethics committees approved 95% of non-sensitive proposals but only 50% of sensitive research proposals. This ensures participants do not conduct research with negative consequences, however psychologists have a moral responsibility to study all individuals