module 2 of psych

what is the evolutionary psychology perspective of lifespan development

1. this focuses on how universal patterns of behaviors and thinking have evolved over time.

2. it’s based on Charles Darwin and the idea that traits that improve survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed down.

3. Evolutionary psychologists study behaviors such as mate selection and parenting because they may help humans achieve reproductive success.

how would you describe the genetic components of conception

1. this occurs when a male gamete (sperm) fertilizes a female gamete (ovum or egg), creating a zygote.

2. Sperm are produced in the testes through spermatogenesis, while immature eggs are stored in the ovaries from birth.

3. When fertilization occurs, the zygote contains combined genetic information from both parents.

what are genes (genetic component)

these are segments of DNA located on chromosomes that control or partially control a number of characteristics

what is a genotype (genetic component)

the genetic makeup

what is a phenotype (genetic component)

observable characteristics like for example brown hair

how do chromosomal abnormalities occur

these occur when chromosome structures or numbers changes

what is deletion (chromosomal abnormalities)

part of a chromosome is missing

ex wolf-hirschhorn syndrome

what is duplication (chromosomal abnormalities)

extra chromosome material is copied

ex down syndrome

what is inversions (chromosomal abnormalities)

the chromosomes sections revere directions

what is translocations (chromosomal abnormalities)

pieces of chromosomes move to another chromosome

what is insertions (chromosomal abnormalities)

chromosomes sections are inserted elsewhere

what do we do prenatal screening/testing

1. an aspect of prenatal care focused on finding problems among a large population with affordable and noninvasive methods

Describe the interaction between genetics and the environment

1. Human development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Behavioral Genetics examines how these factors interact.

2. Epigenetics explains that environmental influences such as stress, nutrition, and experiences can affect how genes are expressed.

3. Most researchers agree development results from a continuous interaction between nature and nurture.

what are monozygotic twins

1. this is when one fertilized egg splits into two embryos

2. they share nearly identical genetic material

what are dizygotic twins

1. this occurs when two separate eggs are fertilized by two different sperm cells

2. they are basically like regular siblings

what is the germinal stage (weeks 1-2)

1. fertilization creates a zygote

2. rapid cell division occurs though mitosis

3. the zygote implants into the uterine lining

what is the embryotic period (weeks 3-8)

1. the embryo forms

2. major organs and body systems begin developing

3. the placenta and umbilical cord form

4. development follows cephalocaudal (head to tail) and proximodistal (center-outward) patterns

what is the fetal period (weeks 9-40)

1. the fetal grows fast and begins to look human

2. organ system continue to develop

3. external genitalia is fully formed

4. brain development increases

5. viability is reached around 22-16 weeks

6. by week 37, organs are developed enough for survival outside the uterus

what are teratogens

harmful substances or environmental factors that can cause birth defects or developmental problems

what are some examples of teratogens

1. alcohol- may cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

2. tobacco- linked to low birth weight and premature birth, and placenta previa

3. drugs and medications

4. STI

5. environmental chemicals and pollution

what are some potential complications of pregnancy and delivery

• Gestational diabetes

• Hyperemesis gravidarum

• Preeclampsia

• Deep vein thrombosis

• Infections

• Peripartum cardiomyopathy

how does the brain grow during infancy

1. The brain grows rapidly during the first two years of life.

2. At birth, the brain is about 25% of its adult weight, but by age two it reaches about 75% of adult size.

3. Most neurons are already present at birth, but they continue developing through processes such as transient exuberance, where many dendritic connections form. Myelination also occurs, which strengthens neural communication by coating axons with fatty myelin sheaths.

4. At the same time, pruning removes unused neural connections while strengthening frequently used ones. The prefrontal cortex is the least developed part of the brain at birth.

what are gross motor skills

involve large muscle movements such as crawling, standing, and walking.

what are fine motor skills

involve smaller, coordinated movements like grasping and pinching.

what is the prefrontal cortex

this is the least developed part of the brain

what does sensation and perception mean

1. sensation means interaction with sensory receptors

2. perception means interpreting information sensed

describe the sight during infancy

1. sight is least developed at birth

2. newborns see 8-16 inches in front of them

3. they haver a preference for faces, unusual interesting, exciting images

describe taste during infancy

1. they have the ability to distinguish flavors: sweet, salty, sour, bitter (prefer sweet tastes)

2. they can identify their mother’s smell easily

what are the merits of breast feeding

1. colostrum, “liquid-gold” is very important during the first days of life, it’s very nutrient-dense

2. breastmilk has iron, fats, proteins for proper development and myelination

3. breast milk also changes composition as the infant grows to meet changing nutritional needs

what is Kwashiorkor

1. “displaced child’s disease- lack of sufficient nutrition

what is the vaccination debate

Vaccinations protect infants and communities from preventable diseases. Some families choose not to vaccinate because of personal or religious beliefs,

what are the consequences of the vaccine debate

1. reduced vaccination rates can weaken herd immunity.

2. Herd immunity occurs when over 90% of the population is vaccinated, helping protect those who cannot receive vaccines.

3. As vaccination rates decline, outbreaks of preventable diseases become more common.

4. Approximately 1 in 14 children are not vaccinated, increasing risks to public health.

what is Piaget’s theory and stages of sensorimotor intelligence

Jean Piaget believed infants learn through interacting with their environment using schemas, assimilation, and accommodation. During the sensorimotor stage, infants gradually develop object permanence and mental representation.

what is stage 1 of piaget’s theory

1. from birth to 6 weeks old

2. reflexes

3. infants respond mainly through reflexes

what is stage 2 of piaget’s theory

1. from 6 weeks to 4 months old

2. primary circulation reactions

3. babies repeat actions involving their own bodies

what is stage 3 of piaget’s theory

1. from 4 to 8 months

2. secondary circulation reactions

3. infants repeat actions that affect the external environment

what is stage 4 of piaget’s theory

1. from 8-12 months

2. coordination of secondary circulation reactions

3. goal-directed behavior develops and object permanence begins

what is stage 5 of piaget’s theory

1. from 12- 18 months

2. tertiary circular reactions

3. toddlers experiment and explore new ways of doing things

what is stage 6 of piaget’s theory

1. from 18-24 months

2. mental representation

3. children begin symbolic thinking and can mentally represent objects and events

what are the memory abilities for infants

1. Infants and toddlers are capable of learning and forming memories. , babies can remember information for weeks or months.

2. Infantile amnesia occurs because memories formed early in life are difficult to retrieve later.

what are phonemes

1. basic units of speech, which make morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of speech

2. When a child starts vocalizing, they produce all phonemes

what are the stages of language development during infancy

1. Reflexive communication ex. crying when hungry

2. Reflexive communication with interest in others. ex. smiling and cooing at parents

3. Intentional communication

4. First word. Ex. mama

5. Two-word or simple sentences

6. Sentences of three or more words

7. Complex conversations

what is holophrastic speech

partial words convey thoughts
• People close to the child often interpret correctly

what is underextension

a word may only be used for one specific think
• Example: “Mommy” is my mother, so I shout for her in the grocery store when I am lost
• Overextension is more common- generalizing

what is the nativism theory ( theory of language development in toddlers).

1. made by Noam Chomsky

2. Language ability is innate. Children are born with a Language Acquisition Device that helps them learn grammar and syntax naturally.

3. children learn language through exposure, and can learn any language

what is the behaviorism theory ( theory of language development in toddlers).

1. made by B. F Skinner

2. language is taught through reinforcement

what is the social-pragmatics theory ( theory of language development in toddlers).

1. Tomasello & Hermann

2. Language develops because children want to communicate and participate socially.

when does attraction and withdrawal start in infancy (emotional development)

1. social smiling appears around 2 months and laughter at 3-5 months

2. displeasure and frustration is normal and sadness can indicate withdrawal

3. stranger wariness appears around 6-15 months showing infants can distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people.

when does separation anxiety start and self awareness develop (emotional development)

1. separation anxiety peaks around 8-10 months and declines later with healthy attachments

2. Self-awareness develops between 15–24 months and can be tested using the rouge or mirror test, where children recognize themselves in a mirror.

what is differentiation and situation (self awareness)

1. self vs. non-self awareness (from birth)

2. Imitation, reaching for objects away from self (by 2 months)

what is secure attachment

The caregiver acts as a secure base for exploration.

what is insecure avoidant attachment

The child avoids or ignores the caregiver.

what is insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment

clings to parent when they leave, reject affectionate attempts on caregiver return
• Does not explore the new environment

what is disorganized attachment

Lease secure attachment; often unpredictable parental behavior,
may be from abuse
• Child has not learned emotional regulation from this model

what is temperament and the goodness of fit model

1. Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess described temperament as biologically based personality traits visible early in life.

2. They identified nine dimensions of temperament, including activity level, mood, adaptability, and distractibility.

3. Infants are often grouped into easy, slow-to-warm, difficult, or undifferentiated temperaments.

4. The goodness-of-fit model states that healthy adjustment depends on how well the child’s temperament matches the environment and parenting style.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development During Infancy

Erik Erikson described two important stages during infancy and toddlerhood:

• Trust vs. Mistrust: Infants learn whether the world is safe and reliable based on how caregivers meet their needs.

• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Toddlers begin developing independence and confidence through exploration and attempting tasks on their own.

Successful resolution of these stages leads to trust, confidence, and autonomy, while unresolved conflict may result in insecurity, shame, or self-doubt.