HOSA 2

What are lymphocytes and where are they found?

Lymphocytes are the cornerstone of the immune system and are found in blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues.

What two types of cells do lymphocytes differentiate into?

B cells and T cells.

What is the function of T lymphocytes?

T lymphocytes protect against viral infections and destroy some cancer cells.

What do B lymphocytes develop into?

Cells that produce antibodies (plasma cells).

Where are B lymphocytes produced and matured?

B lymphocytes are produced and matured in the stem cells of bone marrow.

What activates B cells to produce antibodies?

Exposure to an antigen.

What are the main clones formed after B cell activation?

Most clones become plasma cells that produce specific antibodies.

What is humoral immunity?

Humoral immunity is the immune response mediated by antibodies produced by plasma cells.

What do memory cells do upon repeat exposure to an antigen?

Memory cells immediately produce antibodies.

Where are B lymphocytes predominantly located?

In organized lymphoid tissues like the spleen.

What is an antigen?

Any foreign substance or molecule that stimulates an immune response.

What are antibodies?

Proteins produced in response to an antigen.

What are immunoglobulins?

Antibodies in the gamma globulin fraction of blood plasma.

What is the role of IgM?

Stimulates complement activity; produced on initial exposure to an antigen.

What is the function of IgG?

Protects the fetus before birth and is the most common antibody produced on second and future exposures to an antigen.

What does IgA do?

It protects mucosal surfaces and is found in secretions like saliva and tears.

What is the role of IgE in the immune response?

Responsible for immediate-type allergic reactions and is helpful in fighting parasitic infections.

What must be presented to T lymphocytes?

Antigens must be presented on the surface of a macrophage.

What is the primary function of helper T cells?

Regulate innate and adaptive immune responses.

What do killer T cells do?

They kill cells infected with pathogens or damaged cells.

What is the function of natural killer (NK) cells?

NK cells kill certain microbes and cancer cells without requiring maturation of B and T cells.

Define cytokines.

Cytokines are proteins that act as messengers to regulate the functions of lymphocytes and macrophages during immune response.

Where do T lymphocytes mature?

T lymphocytes mature in the thymus gland.

What is the primary role of macrophages in immunity?

Macrophages engulf and destroy antigens after they are identified by antibodies.

What is the mononuclear phagocyte system?

A system that consists of specialized cells that ingest foreign particulate matter.

What are the types of nonspecific defense mechanisms?

Skin, mechanical reactions, chemical barriers, cellular barriers, interferon, fever, inflammation, expulsive actions.

What is the first line of defense in the immune system?

Skin.

What does specific immunity recognize?

Specific foreign substances.

What is the difference between inborn and acquired immunity?

Inborn immunity is genetic and common to a species, while acquired immunity is obtained through exposure.

What is naturally acquired immunity?

Immunity gained from exposure to a disease without deliberate exposure.

What are the two types of naturally acquired immunity?

Naturally acquired active immunity and naturally acquired passive immunity.

Explain artificially acquired immunity.

Immunity gained through deliberate exposure to an antigen.

What is the role of antibodies in the antigen-antibody reaction?

Antibodies bind to antigens, labeling them for destruction by other substances.

Define complement system.

A group of normally inactive proteins that help kill pathogens when activated.

How does aging affect the immune system?

Older adults have fewer T cells and B cells, which function poorly.

What happens to the immune system with aging?

Slower, muted inflammatory process and response to infection.

What factors contribute to lower body temperature in older adults?

Older adults may have a lower baseline body temperature and may not always have a febrile response to infection.

What is the main function of the respiratory system?

Draws air into the lungs and exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide.

What is the purpose of respiration?

Includes ventilation, gas exchange, and transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

What are the upper respiratory tract structures?

Nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, and trachea.

How does the nasal cavity function?

Warms and moistens incoming air and traps foreign particles.

What structures filter foreign particles in the respiratory system?

Hairs and cilia in the nasal cavity.

What is the role of sinuses?

Lighten the skull and provide resonance for the voice.

What is the function of the pharynx?

Passage for both air and food.

How is the larynx structured?

It is a box-like structure made of cartilages held by ligaments, ensuring the airway remains open.

What is the function of vocal cords?

Produce sound by vibrating when air passes over them.

Describe the trachea.

A tube approximately 4.5 inches long that carries air from the larynx to the lungs.

What is the bronchial tree?

Formed by the division of the trachea into bronchi and further branching into bronchioles.

What is the function of alveoli?

Facilitate gas exchange in the lungs.

What is surfactant, and what does it do?

A substance that reduces surface tension in the lungs, preventing alveolar collapse.

Describe the structure of the lungs.

Humans have two spongy lungs divided into lobes.

What controls the mechanics of breathing?

The respiratory center in the brain influences the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

What are the types of respiration?

External respiration (in the lungs) and internal respiration (in the cells).

What stimulates respiration primarily?

Changes in carbon dioxide levels.

What is the difference between tachypnea and bradypnea?

Tachypnea is rapid breathing, while bradypnea is slow breathing.

What is cheyne-stokes breathing?

A pattern of alternating periods of deep breathing and apnea.

What are the common pulse points?

Temporal, carotid, radial, brachial, femoral, popliteal, posterior tibial, and dorsalis pedis arteries.

What is the normal range for adult pulse rate?

60-80 beats per minute.

What factors can influence pulse rate?

Age, gender, activity, and emotional state.

How is blood pressure typically measured?

Using a sphygmomanometer to assess systolic and diastolic pressures.

What indicates hypotension?

A significantly low blood pressure reading.

What does systolic blood pressure represent?

The pressure during heart contractions.

What factors can affect blood pressure readings?

Body position, stress level, medication, and hydration status.

What does normal urine composition include?

95% water and 5% solutes like urea and electrolytes.

What are abnormal products in urine indicative of?

Possible underlying health issues or infections.

How is the respiratory system affected by aging?

Loss of elasticity, decreased ventilation capacity, and increased susceptibility to respiratory disorders.

What dietary considerations are important for the elderly?

Increased need for nutrient intake and managing chronic conditions.

What is the significance of patient nutrition history?

Identifies risks for malnutrition and guides dietary interventions.

What methods assess nutritional status?

Patient diet history, physical assessments, and laboratory tests.

What is dysphagia and how is it screened?

Difficulty swallowing; assessed through observation and swallowing evaluations.

What is enteral feeding and when is it used?

Feeding via NG tubes or other methods when normal eating is not safe.

What are the key functions of renal kidneys?

Filter waste from blood, regulate electrolyte levels, and control blood pressure.

What role do nephrons play in the kidneys?

Functional units responsible for urine production.

What is urine formation?

The process involving glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion.

What is the significance of measuring blood glucose levels in diabetes management?

To monitor and manage blood sugar levels effectively.

What is the primary function of the liver?

Detoxification, bile production, and metabolic regulation.

What are the roles of hormones in the endocrine system?

Regulate metabolism, growth, and reproductive functions.

What medications are used to manage hypertension?

Diuretics, ACE inhibitors, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers.

What is the purpose of antibiotics?

To combat bacterial infections by either killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth.

What are common side effects of antibiotics?

Nausea, diarrhea, allergic reactions, and disruption of normal flora.

What is the function of antihistamines?

Relieve symptoms of allergies by blocking histamine actions.

What factors contribute to medication dosage adjustments?

Age, weight, sex, height, health status, and drug interactions.

What information is included in a prescription?

Patient name, medication name, dosage, route, and frequency.

How is the metric system used in medication dosing?

Utilizes units like milligrams, grams, and liters for accurate measurement.

What are the common routes of medication administration?

Oral, injectable, and topical routes.

What is the Joint Commission's role in patient safety?

Sets standards for care and safety protocols in healthcare.

What is the significance of proper documentation in nursing?

Ensures accurate patient records, communication, and continuity of care.

How do nurses incorporate culture into patient care?

By respecting and adapting dietary and medical practices according to cultural beliefs.

What is the importance of patient education regarding medications?

To ensure understanding of usage, side effects, and importance for compliance.

What defines chronic diseases concerning nutrition?

Long-term conditions that affect nutrient intake and absorption.

How do hormonal medications function in the body?

By replacing or supplementing hormones that are deficient or unregulated.

What are common psychological factors affecting nutrition?

Emotional states such as stress, depression, and anxiety that influence appetite.

How does aging impact the renal function?

Decreased filtration rate and kidney size, affecting fluid and electrolyte balance.

What changes occur in the gastrointestinal system with age?

Slower movement, changes in absorption, and decreased enzyme production.

What role does patient assessment play in nutritional care?

Identifies individual needs for tailored dietary planning.

What is the purpose of therapeutic diets?

To support recovery and manage specific health conditions through modified nutrition.

What changes in metabolism occur with aging?

Reduced metabolic rate and nutrient absorption efficiency.

How do you calculate body mass index (BMI)?

Weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.

What is the role of dietary supplements?

To provide nutrients that may be lacking in a person's diet.

What approaches are used for nutritional therapy?

Enteral and parenteral feeding for patients unable to take nutrition orally.