Bioenergetics and Cellular Processes

Adhesive proteins

ECM components including fibronectin and laminin.

Structural proteins

ECM components including collagen and elastin.

Glycoaminoglycans (GAG's)

Examples include chondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid.

Animal Membrane Junctions

Adhesion, tight, and gap junctions.

Plant Membrane Junctions

Middle lamella and plasmodesmata.

4 types of Animal Tissues

Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous.

Adaptation

The cellular response to a signal (stimulus).

Types of Cell Signaling

Autocrine, Paracrine, Endocrine, Direct Signaling, and Contact Dependent.

Types of Receptors

Intracellular and Cell Surface (Ligand gated, Enzyme linked, G-protein coupled).

2nd Messenger Mechanisms

Signal transduction molecules including cAMP, DAG, and IP3.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy transformations increase universe disorder and involve loss of usable energy.

Entropy

The amount of randomness or disorder in a system.

Gibb's Free Energy Equation

G = H - T·S (Enthalpy - Temp × Entropy).

Activation Energy

Energy that must be added to cause molecules to react.

Exergonic reactions

Reactions where reactants have more free energy than products.

Endergonic reactions

Reactions where products have more free energy than reactants.

Coupled reactions

Energy released by an exergonic reaction drives an endergonic reaction.

Functions of ATP

Chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that speed reactions by reducing activation energy.

Enzyme Reaction Formula

E + S → E-S complex → P + E.

Factors affecting Reaction Rates

Conc. of E/S, Vmax, temperature, pH, cofactors, and coenzymes.

Feedback inhibition

Regulation via allosteric, competitive, noncompetitive, or irreversible inhibition.

Photosynthesis

Transformation of solar energy into chemical energy of a carbohydrate.

Stomata

Leaf openings where CO₂ enters and H₂O/O₂ exit.

Thylakoids

Flattened sacs in chloroplasts; stacks are called grana.

Photosynthetic Reaction

CO₂ + H₂O + solar energy → glucose + O₂.

Noncyclic Electron Pathway

Electron flow from water to NADPH using PS II and PS I.

Cyclic Electron Pathway

Pathway involving PS I that produces ATP only.

Calvin Cycle

Reactions including CO₂ fixation, reduction, and RuBP regeneration; produces G3P.

C4 Plants

Plants that partition carbon fixation in space to avoid photorespiration.

CAM Plants

Plants that fix CO₂ at night to conserve water (partition in time).

Cellular Respiration Reaction

glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP + heat.

Glycolysis

Breakdown of glucose to 2 pyruvates in the cytoplasm.

Transition Reaction

Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA; connects glycolysis to Krebs cycle.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs)

Matrix reaction producing NADH, FADH₂, CO₂, and ATP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Process in cristae using ETS and ATP synthase to produce 27-29 ATP.

Anaerobic Respiration

Respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen.

Fermentation

Anaerobic process reducing pyruvate to lactate or ethanol/CO₂.

Secondary Metabolism types

Phenolics, Alkaloids, Terpenoids, and Polyketides.