Psychology Unit 2a-b

Gestalt psychology

The idea that we see the whole picture before individual parts. understanding the human mind as a whole and not just parts.

Closure

Filling in missing parts to see a complete image.

Figure and ground

The figure is what you focus on — the main object or subject. The ground is everything else — the background behind it.

Proximity

Grouping objects that are close together.

Similarity

Grouping things that look alike.

Selective attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring everything else. someone in a loud cafe reading a book while blocking out conversations

Cocktail party effect

Hearing something important (like your name) even in a noisy environment.

Inattentional blindness

Missing something obvious because your attention is somewhere else. Gorilla video

Change blindness

Not noticing a change in the environment because attention is elsewhere. zack kings shirt

Depth perception

The ability to see the world in 3D and judge distance. relies on Binocular and monocular cues

Binocular cues

Depth cues that require both eyes.

Retinal disparity

Each eye sees a slightly different image and the brain uses it to judge distance. t

he object is close because the difference (disparity) between what each eye sees is large.

The object is far because the images in each eye are more similar (less disparity).

Convergence

the object is close so Eyes turn inward to focus on close objects.

The object is far because your eyes are more relaxed and straight.

Monocular cues

Depth cues that only require one eye.

Relative clarity

Closer objects look sharp

The object is far because it looks blurry or hazy.

Relative size

If an object looks bigger it's closer

Texture gradient

Close objects show more texture

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear far apart when close and converge when far away.

Interposition

When one object blocks another the one in front is closer

Perceptual constancy

Seeing an object as the same even when lighting, angle, or distance changes.

Color constancy

An object looks the same color even in different lighting.

Shape constancy

An object looks the same shape even from different angles.

Size constancy

An object appears the same size even when distance changes.

Apparent movement

Perceiving motion where there is none.

Phi phenomenon

Lights flashing in sequence appear to move.

Stroboscopic movement

Still images shown rapidly appear to move (like movies or stop-motion).

Concept

A mental category that groups similar objects. To categorize and simplify information. basic unit of knowledge

Prototype

The most typical or best example of something within a concept that the brain uses as a mental reference. Example: When thinking of the concept “bird

Schemas

Mental frameworks or blueprints that help us organize and interpret information based on past experiences; they shape expectations. Example: You expect a server to take your order at a restaurant because your “restaurant schema” tells you how the situation should work.

Assimilation

Interpreting new information by fitting it into an existing schema without changing what you already believe. Example: Seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a “striped horse” because it fits your current understanding of horses.

Accommodation

Changing or expanding an existing schema when new information doesn’t fit what you previously thought. Example: Learning that a zebra is a different species than a horse and adjusting your understanding of the animal category.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method that guarantees a correct answer if followed properly

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that speeds up decision-making but can lead to errors. Example: Choosing a product because it looks familiar instead of reading the details.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging something based on how closely it matches a typical prototype. assuming someone is an accountant because they are quiet and wear glasses, or a musician because they are outgoing and wear a band t-shirt

Availability heuristic

Judging how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind. A highly publicized plane crash may make you believe flying is more dangerous than driving, even though statistics show air travel is much safer. odds are higher

Mental set

The tendency to solve problems using the same method that worked before. it can lmit creative problem solving

Priming

When exposure to a stimulus influences how you respond later without you realizing it. Example: Watching a scary movie makes you interpret shadows or noises as threats afterward.

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions. Example: People are more likely to buy meat labeled “90% lean” than “10% fat

Gambler’s fallacy

mistaken belief that if a random event has occurred more frequently than normal during a given period, it is less likely to happen again in the future (or vice versa). The coin landed on heads 5 times, so tails is more likely now. odds are due to change

Sunk cost fallacy

Continuing something because of what you’ve already invested

Executive function

frontal lobe, decision making, planing, control center

Creativity

The ability to generate new

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple different ideas or solutions for one open-ended problem; emphasizes brainstorming and creativity. Example: Coming up with 10 different uses for a brick (paperweight. emphasizing quantity, variety, and exploring multiple directions.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing multiple ideas down to find the single best answer; logic-based and precise. Example: Solving a multiple-choice question where only one option is correct.

Functional fixedness

Being unable to see a new use for an object beyond its original purpose. Example: Not realizing a shoe can be used as a hammer because you only think of it as footwear.

Encoding

The process of taking information in and converting it into a form the brain can process and store. Computer analogy =Keyboard (typing information into the system).

Storage

Keeping encoded information in the brain over time so it can be used later. Example: Remembering multiplication facts years after learning them in school. Computer analogy =Hard drive (where files are saved long-term).

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored memories back into your awareness. Example: Remembering the answer during a test. Computer analogy =Opening a saved file.

Explicit memory

Memory you consciously think about and intentionally recall. have to work to think about it and rechieve it. Example: Remembering your last birthday party. Brain part: Hippocampus (forms and retrieves explicit memories).

Semantic memory

Explicit memory for facts and general knowledge

Episodic memory

Explicit memory of personal events with time

Prospective memory

Remembering to do something in the future. Example: Remembering to take out the trash later tonight.

Long-term potentiation

The strengthening of neural connections through repeated use

Working memory model

a framework for how we temporarily hold and manipulate information in long-term memory Example: Remembering ingredients while cooking. Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Sketchpad, Episodic Buffer

Central executive

The control center that directs attention, and manages other working memory parts. it acts as the conductor. Example: Deciding what to focus on while studying.

Phonological loop

Holds and rehearses sounds and spoken information. Example: Repeating a phone number in your head to remember it.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Holds visual and spatial information. Example: Imagining how to navigate your room in the dark.

Multi-store model

A model saying memory goes through 3 stages: sensory → short-term → long-term. Example: Hearing a song (sensory)

Sensory memory

Very brief memory of sensory input before deciding if it’s important. Example: Seeing a lightning flash and it lingering in your mind for a split second. george sperling

Short-term memory (STM)

Temporarily holds small amounts of info for about 20–30 seconds. Example: Remembering a code long enough to type it in. P: MILLER 7±2 rule saying STM holds about 5–9 items at once.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Stores unlimited information for very long periods. Example: Remembering your childhood phone number years later.

Automatic processing

Encoding info without effort or intent. Example: Remembering where the stairs are without trying.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Example: Studying vocabulary for a test.

Iconic memory

Sensory memory for visual images lasting a fraction of a second. Example: The world seeming to “freeze” when you blink. Sensory memory- Visual.

visual memory only lasting for like a sec

Echoic memory

Sensory memory for sound lasting 3–4 seconds. Example: Saying “What?” but still hearing what was said without it being repeated. Sensory memory- Auditory.

Semantic encoding

Deep encoding based on meaning. Example: Remembering the word “apple” by thinking of the taste and fruit category. Deepest level.

Phonemic encoding

Encoding based on sound. Example: Remembering a word by how it rhymes (“cat” sounds like “hat”). Middle level.

Structural encoding

Encoding based on physical appearance. Example: Remembering a word because it’s written in all caps. Shallowest level.

Shallow processing

Encoding based on surface details

Deep processing

Encoding based on meaning

Mnemonics

Memory tricks that improve recall. Example: “PEMDAS” to remember math order of operations.

Method of loci

Remembering info by picturing items in familiar locations. Example: Imagining grocery items in rooms of your house.

Chunking

Grouping items into smaller “chunks” to remember more. Example: 867-5309 instead of 8-6-7-5-3-0-9.

Hierarchies

form of studying. Organizing info into levels like categories and subcategories. Example: Organizing animals into mammals → dogs → bulldogs.

Spacing effect

Learning is better when spread out over time. Example: Studying 20 minutes a day for a week > 2 hours the night before.

Distributed practice

Studying in smaller sessions over time. Example: Flashcards 10 min a night.

Massed practice

Cramming all at once. Example: 3 hours straight before a test.

Serial position effect

Remembering items at the beginning and end of a list best. Example: Forgetting middle grocery items.

Primacy effect

Better memory for first items on a list. Example: Remembering the first speeches in presentations.

Recency effect

Better memory for last items because they’re freshest in STM. Example: Remembering the last thing you studied

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating info to keep it in STM but not store long-term. Example: Repeating a phone number until you dial it.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new info to meaning or prior knowledge so it enters LTM. Example: Relating a vocab word to your life.

Highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

Rare ability to remember nearly every detail of one’s life. Example: Recalling what happened on a random date years ago.

Alzheimer’s disease

Brain disorder that destroys memory and cognition. Example: Forgetting family members over time.

Amnesia

Memory loss from brain injury

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of past memories but ability to form new ones stays. Example: Forgetting your identity after a crash but learning new facts is fine.

Anterograde amnesia

Can’t form new memories but past memories stay intact. Example: Meeting someone repeatedly but never remembering them.

Infantile amnesia

Inability to remember early childhood (before age 3–4). Example: No memories from being a baby.

Recall

Retrieving info with no cues. Example: Short-answer tests.Fill-in-the-blank or open-response.

Recognition

Identifying info when given options. Example: Multiple choice. Multiple choice.

Retrieval cues

Hints that help you access memories. Example: Smell of food triggering childhood memories.

Context-dependent

Remembering better in the same environment you learned in. Example: Studying in the room where you’ll test helps recall. Godden & Baddeley study (Figure)- Scuba divers recalled words better if they learned and were tested in the same place (both on land or both underwater).

State-dependent

Memory is better when your physical or mental state matches learning. Example: Learning something tired → recalling it better when tired.

Mood-congruent

You remember info that matches your current mood. Example: When sad

Testing effect

Memory improves through practice testing instead of just reviewing. Example: Quizzing yourself works better than rereading notes.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking and learning. Example: Knowing you study better with flashcards.

Forgetting curve

Shows that memory fades quickly if not reviewed

Encoding failure

Not storing info because you never paid attention. Example: Not remembering a shirt color you never noticed.

Proactive interference

Old memories block new ones. Example: Calling your new teacher by last year’s teacher’s name.