Ethical Thinkers - HRE4M Exam

Descartes (17th century)

* distinction between human intelligence and the brain
* Realized he could be deceived by appearances
* He could doubt the existence of everything
* He concluded: “I think, there for I am.” Free thinking.
* Created split: thinking and the world of matter
* Changed understanding of freedom
* Self as a thinking self

Kant (1724-1804)

* Deontological (duty) ethics
* Theoretical reason: how we come to **laws of nature, laws of cause and effect,** and **govern human behaviour**
* Freedom of choice is not an issue
* Practical reason; beyond scientific and empirical knowledge. Humans act not only on impulse from laws of nature but also based on principles
* The good is the aim of a moral life
* Concerned about principles of ethical reasoning
* We cannot arrive to the same certainty as math or science

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3 are of interest:

* God: humans cannot achieve supreme good alone
* Freedom: what we ought to do, we can do
* Immortality: supreme good is impossible for this life, a life beyond to achieve this supreme good

Freud

* Theory of unconscious
* Impulse based on repressed memories and desires
* Neurotic, when you act on your unconscious
* Psycho analytic theory
* love (Ero) and death (Thanatos)
* The two desire conflict with one another
* Superego, internal taskmaster, imposes feelings of guilt and shame when you don’t follow rules imposed by parents and society
* So powerful you obey against your own will
* The Id, in conscious reservoir of instinctual driven by pleasure principle
* The Ego, conscious structure; reality principle to mediate the Id
* The Superego. stores the “shoulds” and “have-to’s”

Aquinas (1225-1274)

* Rediscovered Aristotle
* Incorporated Aristotle’s thinking into theology
* Insisted the ethical comes from the end of that’s inscribed in everyone
* person’s core is the desire for the good
* equated God with the highest good, the Holy Trinity
* People were made for happiness
* People live the good life by using intelligence, their capacity, desires, and physical abilities
* Natural law, the light of understanding placed in us by god

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4 Virtues:

* Prudence: reason well
* Temperance: remain moderate w/ emotions
* Fortitude: be courageous w/ difficulties
* Justice: act well in relation to others

3 Virtues:

* Faith
* Hope
* Charity

Erikson

* Cognitive developmental stage theory
* Personality grows as we grow physically and cognitively
* Takes place as a result of socialization
* Eight stages, each stage presents us with a challenge
* Stages are precipitated by crisis in one’s life. These crisis are important, they make us question

Locke

* Theory of civil government
* Protection of property
* Individuals share the facility of reason
* Most acts accordingly to self-evident laws of nature
* When reason is left aside, conflict occurs in human behaviour
* All are equal
* One must surrender individual rights, for the protection of community
* government is for protection of private property

Nietzsche

* Without God humanity is rudderless, without a horizon. There would be an emptiness in life
* We would lose direction, be pushed and pulled

Hobbes

Human nature:

* everyone seeks power so they aren’t over powered
* Humans driven be desires and human will
* Each person is for themselves

Nature of society:

* avoid anti-social life and insecurity by accepting sovereignty
* ruler to protect competition between power
* need for protection comes with obligation to the ruler

Rousseau

Human nature

* humans are good by nature
* Social contrast; keeping the general will of the people in mind

Nature of Society

* the people are the sovereign, they make the laws they live by
* the government enforces those laws. If not, they shall be replaced

Aristotle

* Political intent. His first concern was **the polis**, Greek-city state
* Human life is shaped to the fullest by community
* Happiness is not equated with pleasure is temporary, happiness is an enduring state
* Teleology, meaning purpose or end to study
* **We are intended to be rational. we must base actions on reason**
* to be **Virtuous** is to be successful as a human being
* Avoid excess. Be moderate in all things

Callicles

* A sophost
* Argue that the best life is a life of sensual pleasure

Kohlberg

* Theory of moral development

__3 Primary stages of Moral Development__


1. **Pre-conventional moral thinking:**

* decision based on fear of being punished and the need to fulfill own desires
* This fear of punishment is a motive for action


2. **Conventional moral thinking:**

* trust, caring, and loyalty to others become central
* These values influence moral judgment
* Rules are followed out of respect


3. **Post-conventional moral thinking:**

* moral choices based on the principle of justice and concern for the common good
* Laws and obligations become less important
* One is able to recognize universal human rights

Rawl’s

* Theory of justice, an alternative to utilinarism
* Wondered how to reconcile individual freedom with the constraint of society

**2 Principles of Justice that Govern Society**


1. Each person has the most extensive system of rights and freedoms. Everyone is equal
2. Economic and social inequalities are justified only if they benefit all of society

* The rights and freedoms of the individual superseek the notion of the good, they must be protected

Plato

* Aristotle’s teacher
* Focused on abstraction and the world of ideas
* High regard for the good, comparing it to the sun
* The good shines on all our actions, its in all our actions
* We do not find the good, we find good things
* The closest we come to the good is in contemplation
* Struggled against movement called sophism, they threatened morality

Sartre

* In contrast of the importance of others in Western Culture
* Views freedoms as independence from others

Mill

* The good must be measured qualitatively not quantitatively
* Utilitarianism, a measure of good not on reason, but what brings pleasure to the greatest numbers